An Analytical Report on the Factors Influencing Consumer Behavior in A

Questions: The Consumer Journal Report requires to dissect the inside and outer elements impacting the shopper dynamic procedure for a significant buy for example a vehicle or an occasion. The investigation MUST be founded on the real world and inside Australian market. The task ought to be in report design. It is essential to be explanatory and NOT graphic, showing a comprehension of which hypotheses were influencing everything in this buy circumstance. Stamping Criteria. Depiction of Internal Influences (Perception, Learning, Motivation, Personality Attitude). Depiction of External Influences (Group Influence, Culture). Investigation and exhibit of comprehension. Answers: Official rundown Purchaser conduct is pivotal for the endurance of a business, subsequently the motivation behind why the factor impacting client acquisition of specific merchandise ought to be inquired about on. This report plans to dive into and investigate the different impacting factors (both interior and outer) that lead up to the creation of an essentially significant choice by people. It attempts to bring an investigative point of view into these components especially in the Australian setting or rather consumership. These examination targets clarifying that not just the budgetary factor ought to be consider as the one influencing the customer conduct yet a ton of things as well. It further clarify how these inner and outside components influence the purchaser when buying a loft in Australia. Presentation The idea of customer conduct is about the investigation of people and the different subjective just as non-intellectual procedures that purchasers connect with themselves into before going to a choice of purchasing a specific item or administration. The human inclination that makes us edged towards hairsplitting and fulfillment in whatever we do has it that sharp and well however through choices are practically vital at whatever point we need to purchase anything particularly is the said item or administration costs a significantly high measure of cash. Mentally we know that such choices dont simply happen yet rather are driven by various impacts that simultaneously gone through our heads at whatever point we need to purchase something. This musings and pre-prominent conditions are essentially answerable for whatever official choice we end up with. The run of the mill procedure of shopper dynamic, or rather what goes into account during the dynamic procedure starts with the need acknowledgment and mindfulness that as a customer you have to have a specific item or be rendered a given help. Various both inward just as outer impacts that well examine later in this report assume a job into the excitement of these requirements in the midst of our internal identities. The improvement of intrigue comes in as the second step in the process where we really gain enthusiasm into what we need to purchase and start to assemble significant data, for example, the amount it would cost us and even where we would discover whatever we are searching for. The following stage in the process would appear as elective assessment where we attempt to assess what different alternatives are in our removal before pushing forward to buy the ideal item or administration. The last advance in the shopper dynamic procedure I would contend is the motivation behind why the majority of us take unmistakable fascination and put a great deal of speculation before making our next buy. I state this since this is the place shoppers make their own self assessment into the choice they simply made it is the place customers can check their fulfillment into the item or administration and along these lines their choices. The different impacts that come to ploy The Australian economy I would ask to contend has prompted the ascent of the moral purchaser. This can be basically credited to the way that the economy hasnt been that amicable to the purchasers and sometimes theyve needed to settle on some extreme decisions and wind up being somewhat careful in regards to their own money related wellbeing. A typical situation that I might want to use as a case model that Australian customers are probably going to confront from time to time is that of settling on the choice on the responsibility for own homes or condos particularly in an energetic city, for example, Sydney. Euro screen (2016) reports that Australian shoppers generally have needed to manage heightening house costs which imply that buyers should invest increasingly attentive exertion before going to a choice. An Australian buyer hoping to claiming a home during such disagreeable monetary occasions would be affected by two primary powers; the interior impacts and the outside impacts. I n these situation we take a gander at buyer dynamic when buying a loft. The shopper choice when buying the condo is impact by both the inner and the outer factors as talked about beneath. Inward factors A purchasers character attribute is one of the inner impacts that foreordain the people drive towards taking enthusiasm on a specific item for this situation a loft. It is the contemplations, feelings, expectations and conduct that we express as we travel through our condition (marketingteacher.com .2016). In the event that the people character takes care of into the need to purchase a home, at that point all things considered, the individual will make up their psyche about purchasing and attempt to counter whatever will in general restrict what is lined up with their character. The consistency hypothesis of dynamic contends that individuals (for this situation our home purchaser) look for comfort from their inward arrangement and the interior arrangement it is alluding to is the arrangement to our inside characters (our considerations, feelings and expectations about something we need) and accordingly it has a major of an impact with regards to customer dynamic. Discernment is one more inner factor affecting how choices turn out. On account of our home purchaser in Sydney, it is difficult to perceive how he/she can wind up with the choice of purchasing the condo yet they never had a positive discernment towards the thought in the first place.it is tied in with seeing something and appointing importance to it and the side of the scale (be it positive or negative) that it falls under decides if it very well may be given any consideration in the psyche of a person. It would along these lines appear that this factor and the hypothesis of illustrative rationality can be integrated dependent on the way that the two of them relate what we need to a basic logical theory like a basic positive observation towards something. Everyday connections with others makes an inclination of receiving new thoughts and standards or mindsets from those whom we associate with and it winds up being a learning procedure that influences how we see things and for the most part shape our dynamic procedures. On account of the home purchaser, in the event that he/she through the different collaborations with companions continuously discovered that it is an essential need and an absolute necessity have to claim a condo or a house in Sydney then its most likely obvious that the individual will go for the house. I would contend this is resolved to a huge reach out by prevalent attitude among those we cooperate with and would thusly make it suitable in the event that I attached it with the inclusion hypothesis of dynamic which places that associations prompts age of standards. At the point when an individual is settling on a choice to purchase a house in Sydney, individual inspiration assumes an exceptionally basic job in guaranteeing the destiny of an official choice. It is inspiration that goes about as the stimulating power that drives conduct and disposition. Maslows progressive system of necessities sets that for whatever we think about a need, there are positives picked up and simultaneously negatives decreased. This along these lines implies that the inclination to satisfy or accomplish something we consider as a need will go about as a spark that above all else drives us towards an adjusted choice. Since lodging is considered as one of the fundamental human needs, it is significant to take note of that an individual meaning to purchase a house in Sydney is probably going to be persuaded by the sheer truth this is an essential need and accordingly an unquestionable requirement have. As the remainder of the inside impacts, demeanor of a person towards may appear to be an outside impact yet in genuine sense it is about an inner assessment just communicated apparently about a thought within reach. Demeanor kind of pre-decides the destiny of a choice to a huge degree since it doesnt just influence how we settle on choices yet in addition the cooperations with whom we make particularly for our instance of a house purchaser in Sydney. We cannot anticipate that he/she will oversee the thought with a negative demeanor towards purchasing a house in Sydney. A hypothesis that is in real life in this specific occurrence is the consistency hypothesis of dynamic in light of the fact that generally somebody with a negative mentality towards the thought will in general shut it out totally despite the fact that it would be seen by others as a splendid move. Outside impacts Gathering impact follows a regulating approach of cooperations among and inside gatherings. It is through these gathering associations that bunch standards and qualities are made and bit by bit accumulate conspicuousness among the individuals. The social impact hypothesis of is one of the key speculations that ring a bell in this setting regarding the instance of an individual picking to purchase a house in Sydney since the hypothesis spins around bunch think and impact. This in this manner hints that a choice is probably going to be massively influenced by bunch impact. Societies groups particular standards and fundamental beliefs that are exceptionally held by separate people and in this manner here and there or another they portray the sorts of choices we make. For example a Muslim would effortlessly decide on hamburger meat as opposed to pork due to his/her way of life. The hypothesis of duty contends that individuals feel obliged to fall set up to their social standards or to the greater part standards and subsequently an individual customarily brought up in the outback would doubtlessly settle on the choice to do without purchasing a house in Sydney for hey

The Crucial Decade and After America 1945-1960 free essay sample

A book audit on Goldmans work about the change of the post-World War II harmony into the globalization of the Cold War. The paper decides to demonstrate that, while Eric Goldman is significant as a wellspring of insights regarding the time, his work holds little an incentive as an authentic bit of work. It follows the life of Goldman and his composition of the work. It reprimands the absence of objectivity in the work and clarifies the explanations behind this need. It takes a gander at the divergence recorded as a hard copy style of the work and closes by assessing the works an incentive all in all. To the extent the significance to his topic, it is hard to track down shortcoming in Goldmans work. He doesn't meander from the subject and his work is exceptionally engaged. His plan was to give a diagram of the occasions that molded the virus War. We will compose a custom exposition test on The Crucial Decade and After: America 1945-1960 or then again any comparable theme explicitly for you Don't WasteYour Time Recruit WRITER Just 13.90/page He approaches numerous first individual records of discussions and letters composed at that point, which different antiquarians could just dream about. He knows little know realities and stories, some of which he saw with his own eyes. His inclusion of the theme is careful and complete.

Compare and contrast a drama's device with those of a poem or short Essay

Look into a show's gadget with those of a sonnet or short story - Essay Example While most shows are composed to be performed, there are additionally some which are composed only for perusing while short stories and sonnets are made to be perused, regardless of whether quietly or orally. The plot of the show is comprehended through the discussions of the characters and, to a few, with the assistance of a storyteller. A large portion of the meat of the story is comprehended through the conveyance of the dramatization that it is significant for entertainers to adhere to guidelines precisely particularly with their outward appearances and activities. For those which are intentionally for perusing, essayists express feelings with short portrayals written in enclosures previously or after the lines of the characters to offer life to the story in the psyches of the peruser. Short stories and sonnets then again comparably present the plot as they present their characters. As a rule, shows influence the faculties of hearing and sight while short stories and sonnets are constrained to the feeling of sight. In any case, the three distinct types of artistic pieces all mix the creative mind and feeling of crowds as they present the characters and plot of the story.

Religion in Uncle Toms Cabin and the Communist Manifesto free essay sample

This paper talks about the manner by which religion was utilized to help keep up power regarding two works: Uncle Toms Cabin and the Communist Manifesto. The accompanying paper sees two works: Uncle Toms Cabin and the Communist Manifesto. The manner by which religion was utilized to help keep up force will be examined concerning these two works. The essential similitudes and contrasts between these two books will be drawn upon. From the paper: Despite the fact that Uncle Toms Cabin by Harriet Beecher Stowe and the Communist Manifesto were composed at about a similar point ever, they are uniquely various books. Albeit one was an anecdotal novel and one a philosophical treatise, the two works impacted their nations to a more prominent or lesser degree during a common war, and shockingly comparative perspectives with respect to religion are either communicated or inferred in the two works. This paper will take a gander at how the two functions talk about or uncover how religion was utilized to help keep up places of intensity. We will compose a custom exposition test on Religion in Uncle Toms Cabin and the Communist Manifesto or then again any comparative theme explicitly for you Don't WasteYour Time Recruit WRITER Just 13.90/page

Causes And Effects Of Global Warming, Free Essay Sample

Causes and Effects of Global Warming There are diverse challenges impinging our environment. Destruction of the forests, pollution, and the use of every of our earth’s natural resources are among a few. Nonetheless, none of these problems is as serious as global warming as it affects both everyone and everything. Global warming refers to the rise of the temperature within the atmosphere as a result of carbon dioxide emission (Haldar, 2011). Â  Individuals must put matters in their own hands by taking serious actions towards stopping this catastrophe, moreover, must recognize the magnitude of this issue before things go from bad to worse. The future solely relies on actions we take towards slowing global warming. Accordingly, it is important to understand the causes as well as consequences of global warming. Causes of Global Warming Scientists have linked global warming with an increase in greenhouse gases within the air generated via human undertakings, for instance, deforestation, combustion of non-renewable sources, in other term fossil fuels among others. These activities generate huge quantities of greenhouse gas production which is the primary cause of global warming. According to White (2017), greenhouse gases absorb heat within the globe’s atmosphere in order towards keeping the earth warm towards sustaining existence; this natural method is referred as the greenhouse effect, which is a natural process. With the absence of these gases, the universe will be cold on behalf of sustaining human beings, as well as other living things. The greenhouse effect occurs because of stability of the main kinds of greenhouse gases. Nonetheless, whenever unusually high degrees of these gases mount up within the temperature, a lot of heat begins getting confined, besides, results in the development of greenhouse effect. Man-made generated discharges have been linked with heightening greenhouse degrees that are increasing global temperatures as well as triggering global warming. Greenhouse Gas Emissions As Well As The Enhanced Greenhouse Effect Greenhouse gases are generated naturally as well as via human undertakings. Unluckily, greenhouse gases produced via human undertakings are accumulated towards the air to an extremely higher degree compared to any natural method may eradicate them. Overall degrees of greenhouse gases have tremendously amplified following Industrial Revolution. Just a few groups of human undertakings are triggering the accumulation of major greenhouse gases including carbon dioxide, fluorinated gases, methane, and nitrous oxide to increase (White, 2017). The Common of human carbon dioxide productions comes from the combustion of non-renewable sources, for instance, petroleum, coal and so on so that human beings may power automobiles, generate electricity, and keep warm. Other vital sources originate from industry such as cement manufacturing. Methane is generated via mankind during the usage and production of non-renewable sources, livestock as well as crop farming (White, 2017). Fluorinated gases are utilized within cooling, refrigeration, as well as manufacturing applications. Nitrous oxide emissions originate from the utilization of synthetic fertilizers, fossil fuel burning as well as livestock manure management. Deforestation For the last 7 decades, deforestation has been an enormous activity via human beings and converting forestry to farms possess danger in relation to greenhouse gas emissions. For decades, humans have burned as well as cleared forests with an aim of clearing land in lieu of cultivation. This possesses a serious impact on the ecosystem through releasing carbon dioxide in the air and concurrently lessening the plants which may clear carbon dioxide in the environment (White, 2017). Whenever forests are cleared, soil disturbance, as well as heightened degrees of decay within converted soils, generates carbon dioxide productions. Additionally, this raises soil corrosion, as well as nutrient percolating that, may additionally lessen the region’s capability towards acting like carbon sink. Effects of Global Warming Melting of Glaciers Melting of glaciers generates a plethora of complications for mankind and other living things on the globe (Goldman, Kumagai, Robarts, 2013). As a result of raised global warming, the sea level will automatically rise that will result in flooding, consequently creating havoc among human life. Moreover, it will likewise endanger numerous species of living things and therefore, hampering the balance of the environment. Regions within the Arctic are fading away, besides, flowing in main oceans. Increasing temperatures generates a great threat towards wildlife as well as entire environments within these areas. Having glaciers melting at immense rates, a series of actions is being produced, which cannot be reversed. Climate change Unbalanced weather patterns have by now began showing outcomes. Raised precipitation in terms of rain has been experienced within polar as well as sub-polar areas. Extra global warming will cause additional evaporation that will trigger more rains. Both plants and animals cannot simply adapt towards raised rainfall. Plants might die and animals might migrate to different regions, which may cause the whole ecology out of balance (Casper, 2010). Droughts Whereas it might be flooding within Savannah, serious drought is occurring elsewhere within the globe. As temperatures increases, the existence of drought has raised within the Western United State (Casper, 2010). In addition to no precipitation and heat waves, entire forests have started to vanish comprising thousands of trees within Colorado’s Rockies. Huge scale evaporation will become the primary cause of droughts within numerous places especially Africa. Even though it is revolving under the large pressure of water calamity, raised global warming could additionally make the condition worse and will trigger malnutrition. Diseases As temperature becomes extra warm, it may impact the health of human beings and the illnesses they are vulnerable to. With the rise in the rain, waterborne illnesses are prone to spread such as malaria (Haldar, 2011). The globe will become very warm, thus heat waves are prone towards increasing, which may trigger a severe effect on the humans. Frequent Wildfires Whereas wildfires are as a result of natural causes, with the extra carbon dioxide within the air, as well as hotter summers, the proof is vivid. More regular wildfires keep on surfacing in diverse amounts every year (Haldar, 2011). The degree at which they combust is higher than the last, besides, with the emission of carbon dioxide in the air, individual’s lives are in danger, also wildlife greatly suffers. Every time there is a wildfire, the oxygen levels lessen responsible for combating the dangerous levels of carbon dioxide that are being emitted in the atmosphere. Severe Precipitation There is insurmountable scientific proof that global warming leads to increased precipitation. Also, global warming generates conditions which may result in extra powerful summer storms as well as hurricanes. Cities located in the coastal regions encounter more problems as precipitation poses serious flooding. Conclusion Global warming is primarily caused via greenhouse gases that occur naturally and are either directly or indirectly produced by humans. Amid the sources of human-generated gases are deforestation and burning of fossil fuels among others. Some effects of global warming include droughts, severe precipitation, frequent wildfires, diseases, and climate change. References Casper, J. K. (2010). Changing Ecosystems: Effects of Global Warming. New York: Infobase Pub. Goldman, C. R., Kumagai, M., Robarts, R. D. (2013). Climatic Change and Global Warming of Inland Waters: Impacts and Mitigation for Ecosystems and Societies. Chichester, West Sussex, UK: John Wiley Sons Inc. Haldar, I. (2011). Global warming: The causes and consequences. New Delhi: Mind Melodies. White, D. (2017). The Causes of Global Warming. Retrieved from: https://www.thoughtco.com/causes-of-global-warming-3325286?utm_term=4+causes+of+global+warmingutm_content=p1-main-1-titleutm_medium=semutm_source=google_sutm_campaign=adid-d9f1eddf-87cf-4f46-a0ca-cdaec6a2a59f-0-ab_gsb_ocode-35385ad=semDan=google_sam=broadq=4+causes+of+global+warmingo=35385qsrc=999l=semaskid=d9f1eddf-87cf-4f46-a0ca-cdaec6a2a59f-0-ab_gsb

Is Surveillance Ethical - Free Essay Example

The concept of surveillance involves close monitoring of behavior of people in a certain location of importance. Surveillance has many media of propagation. It involves audio, video and even the sense of smell. Examples of video surveillance are CCTV cameras (Closed Circuit Tele Vision cameras) at areas of commercial importance such as banks, schools, courts. Audio surveillance involves tapping phone calls to listen to conversations. Surveillance through smell is when dogs are used to detect the smell of narcotics and explosives from a certain distance. The ethical aspect of surveillance questions how surveillance is being used and whether it is morally and ethically permitted. It involves questioning certain aspects like the circumstances of its usage, when is it permissible? When is it not at all entertained. What are its benefits and its harms. This paper starts off with a brief backdrop into history about how the concept of surveillance originated. The focus of this paper is towards the stand that surveillance is unethical in the modern world. This paper speaks about the stakeholders of surveillance, the motive behind it and its impact on the society. History One of the first few references we can see about surveillance is the Panopticon. The Panopticon was to be a prison, comprising a circular building with the cells adjacent to the outside walls. In the centre was a tower in which the prison supervisor would live and monitor the inmates. Large external windows and smaller internal windows in each cell would allow the supervisor to monitor the activities of the inmates, while a system of louvres in the central tower would prevent the inmates from seeing the supervisor. A rudimentary form of directed loudspeaker would enable the supervisor to communicate with the prisoners(Macnish 2009). Bentham argued that even though the inmates didnt know when they were being watched, they would be in the constant fear of being spotted of wrongdoing and they would be disciplined. There were many versions of Panopticon adopted in the later years and it was a widespread popular idea. The Central Idea Behind Surveillance: If you havent done anything wrong, you have nothing to fear(Wu, Chung, Yamat, Richman 2013). This is the argument supporting the governments actions of spying and eavesdropping on people from wherever they have remote access to under the mask of surveillance. Thus, the governments use of closed-circuit television cameras in public spaces, warrantless wiretapping, and library record checks have the potential to save lives from criminals and terrorists with only minimal invasion of its citizens privacy. This argument fails on many grounds. To begin with, when collecting personal data and information about the identity of a person, an archive of information is created which makes them vulnerable when fallen into the wrong hands. When data is collected, whether such data remains used for its stated purpose after its collection has been called into question. A classic example of unauthorized collection of data is wikileaks. Wikileaks claims to have a database of ten million documents in ten years since its inception in 2006. It contains sensitive information and classified media from anonymous sources. It is a horrible idea to think about when anything as classified as the information held by Interpol or any such global organization on criminals, victims etc., is suddenly a few fingertips away from being revealed, what would be the case if a common mans financial details is in the wrong hands the same way? It is a critical question to think about. Ethical Concerns: A. Privacy The above example shows us that privacy is one of the main concerns that make us question about the ethical strength of surveillance. We may appear in public safe in the knowledge that our weaknesses are not on display for all to see, allowing for confident personal interaction. When we vote we do so in the belief that no-one can see our decision and treat us well or poorly in the light of how we voted. Privacy is thus important in the social context of democracy. In many cases we do not want to know everything about everyone around us and so privacy can protect the rest of us from being exposed to too much information. The 21st century has become the century of Big Data and advanced Information Technology allows for the storage and processing of exabytes of data. The revelations of Edward Snowden have demonstrated that these worries are real and that the technical capabilities to collect, store and search large quantities of data concerning telephone conversations, internet searches and electronic payment are now in place and are routinely used by government agencies. For business firms, personal data about customers and potential customers are now also a key asset. At the same time, the meaning and value of privacy remains the subject of considerable controversy (Hoven, Jeroen, Blaauw, Martijn, Pieters, Wolter and Warnier, Martijn, 2014). As the excerpt states, we can see that privacy has a major threat to everyone. B. Trust Another ethical issue loosely tailing privacy is trust. Surveillance also limits the opportunity to present oneself in the manner of ones own choosing. It is hence limiting on the individuals autonomy, impacting how that individual interacts with the world. While Bentham believed the Panopticon would encourage inmates to self-discipline, this would only occur through fear of repercussions. The inmates would be denied the opportunity to demonstrate willingness to reform without the surveillance. There would therefore be no opportunities for the supervisor of the prison to place his trust in the prisoner, nor for that prisoner to demonstrate his trustworthiness other than in the presence of surveillance. Any traits displayed would then arguably not be genuine reflections of the character of the inmate. The same is true of surveillance in the workplace, schools and society at large. If the surveilled is suspicious of or conscious of the surveillance then they might conform to the expect ed norm, but this will not necessarily reflect their character(Macnish 2009). When a person is being surveilled, the reasons to trust him or her just keeps diminishing. The constant fear of being watched makes the persons actions more predictable. Conclusion To sum up, there are many ethical concerns involving the ethical aspect of surveillance, but the main concerns involve maintaining the privacy and security of the individual. However, it has been proven that the government and other major organizations handling sensitive information do not give much importance to the safety of data and there is always the threat of intrusion into anyones lives which is the foremost and a cruel repercussion of being surveilled thereby decreasing the trust of individuals among one another with the fear of being monitored constantly.

Rabbits Are Strict Herbivores And Require A Diet High

Rabbits are strict herbivores and require a diet high in fibre. A balanced diet of grasses, hay and pellets needs to be provided in the correct ratio to ensure gastrointestinal tract motility. Adequate dental wear is required by high volumes of chewing of grasses and hay which minimises dental procedures. Rabbits require high quantities of fresh grass, dried grass products or hay and need up to 30-60g of dry food per body weight and containing at least 18% of fibre. Normal healthy rabbits should be fed between 30-60g of commercial pellets per kg of bodyweight per day. 3 (bodyweight) Ãâ€" 40g (commercial mix) = 120g The patient was prescribed Ox Bow Organic Pellets. It is specially produced for rabbits, equipped with essential vitamins and minerals. It contains a wholesome mixture of organic elements including, high fibre hay, and rich in antioxidants and has a balanced omega 3 oils and 6 fatty acids. Some rabbits fed rabbit mix’s are selective feeders and may reject the higher fibre items in the mix. Vitamins and minerals are incorporated in the pellet mix andrejection can produce a diet deficient in calcium, vitamin D and other nutrients. This is why we need to encourage rabbits to eat all the ingredients by offering small amounts and refilling the container only when all the food has been consumed.  © 2014. Veterinary Nurse Solutions Pty Ltd V1.0 page 98 of 107. Gastrointestinal tract of rabbits Mouth: This is the first part of the rabbit’s digestive system. The lips

The Assessment Of Disease Activity - 1591 Words

Assessment of Disease Activity: Monitoring of SLE in clinical practice is based upon differentiating disease activity from organ damage accrual. A variety of disease activity indices have been formulated, including the SLEDAI (Systemic Lupus Erythematosus Disease Activity Index), SLAM (Systemic Lupus Activity Measure), BILAG (British Isles Lupus Assessment Group) (Ben-Menachem, 2011). Assessing Chronic Damage of SLE: In 1996, a damage index for SLE was developed by the SLICC and endorsed by the ACR; hence, it has become known as the SLICC/ACR Damage Index which complements other measures of lupus disease activity as an outcome measure (Gladman et al., 1996). There is international consensus that it is the best instrument to measure organ†¦show more content†¦B. Pharmacologic treatments: 1- Non steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs): NSAIDs are generally effective for musculoskeletal complaints, fever, headaches, and mild serositis (Schur and Wallace, 2012). NSAIDs may cause acute interstitial nephritis, acute tubular necrosis or membranous nephropathy so should be avoided in lupus nephritis. NSAIDS may be responsible for neuropsychiatric features like headache, dizziness, aseptic meningitis, etc. which need differentiation from neuropsychiatric involvement in SLE (Vasudevan and Ginzler, 2009). 2- Glucocorticoids: Lympholytic (lysis of lymphocytes), inhibit mitosis of lymphocytes, reduce size and lymphoid content of the lymph node and spleen, inhibit the production of inflammatory mediators, including Platelet activator factor, leukotrienes, prostaglandins, histamine and bradykinin (Bertram, 2012). In SLE, glucocorticoids remain the most important and most effective short-term therapy. Multiple studies have shown improvement in survival with glucocorticoid use (Lo and Tsokos, 2012). 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Protection Of Individual Property Rights - 1689 Words

The outcome of major cases that have gone through the United States Supreme Court have made an influence on how laws and amendments of the United States Constitution are construed. Protection of individual property rights is a controversial topic in the political spectrum and it has advanced with different visions of values that should be protected in American Society. The Fifth Amendment due process and clause jurisprudence reflects the notion of property. The following four U.S Supreme Court cases, Fletcher v. Peck (1810), Dartmouth College v. Woodward (1819), United States v. Cruikshank (1875), and Ex Parte Milligan (1866), demonstrate the tensions between property and democracy that have risen during the Civil War Period. The right of due process of law is one of the most profound principal in our lives today. It decreases the chance of giving an innocent person the death penalty and it protects people from condemnation. In Supreme Court cases like United Ex Parte Milligan, Due P rocess saved Milligan’s life from an unjust court trial. Due process also limits the power the government has such as search and seizures or to charge someone with an unreasonable crime. The principle of binding contracts was established in two Supreme Court cases. This theory states that a state cannot overturn a contract for private corporations. During the Founding era, a voluntary contract between two individuals was an indication of equality. They would both agree to give up some ofShow MoreRelatedEnvironmental Laws And Its Effects On The United States1292 Words   |  6 PagesDuring the late 1700s, many Americans advocated for social justice, economic empowerment, property rights and environmental protection. Their advocacy created a national phenomenon that empowered government and policymakers to execute policies aimed at solving these problems nationwide. The government again took action to enact numerous laws, some of which became the foundation for modern environmental policy and regulations in the United States. â€Å"On the national level, the first federal action toRead MoreCopyright Laws Protecting Musical And Literary Intellectual Creations901 Words   |  4 Pagesauthors’ intellectual property rights. The United States legislature has considered intellectual property protection since the Constitution’s penning. As the publishing world changes so do the laws protecting published works. As copyright law changes with time it grows more complex. Consequently, copyright litigation takes place frequently in the United States. Copyright Protection in the United States Intellectual property is a work that an individual or entity creates. This property may include thingsRead MoreChina on Diplomatic Protection Essay examples577 Words   |  3 PagesChina on Diplomatic Protection The topic of diplomatic protection historically is the link of nationality, which provides the basis of a right of protection by the state, although in some cases, by means of an international agreement a nation may have the right to represent another nation and act for the benefit of its citizens. Essentially states make claims against other bodies for compensation and remedy in the event that they have suffered by injury of denial or justice in the otherRead MoreIntellectual Property Rights : An Analytical Study Essay998 Words   |  4 PagesINTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS – AN ANALYTICAL STUDY IN THE INDIAN CONTEXT Abstract Intellectual property rights are the rights given to persons over the creations of their minds. These rights make the creator/ inventor as the owner of the product/work. IP protection is intended to stimulate the creativity of the human mind for the benefit of all by ensuring that the advantages derived from exploiting a creation benefit the creator. This will encourage creative activity and allow investors in researchRead MoreCopyright Law Protects Functional Products, Processes, And Designs1315 Words   |  6 Pages Introduction â€Å"Intellectual Property†(IP) provides an intangible property rights protecting a product or creations, and regulates the uses of different sorts of ideas and insignia such as industrial design, literature, and artistic works inclusive of symbols, names and images. It is enforced by means of patented inventions, copyrights and trademarks where each protects distinct subject matter and promotes a unique social goal. Patent law protects functional products, processes andRead MoreThe Ethics And Intellectual Property1276 Words   |  6 PagesEthics and Intellectual Property In the business world, being able to compete in the marketplace is critical to a company s success. One of the ways organizations are able to improve the likelihood for success is by patenting their intellectual property (IP). Intellectual property is defined by Google (n.d.) as, a work or invention that is the result of creativity, such as a manuscript or a design, to which one has rights and for which one may apply for a patent, copyright, trademark (para. 1)Read MoreIntellectual Property Protection and Enforcement Essay1365 Words   |  6 PagesIntellectual property (IP) is defined as property that is developed through an intellectual and creative processes. Intellectual property falls under the category of property known as intangible rights, which includes patents (inventions of processes, machines, manufactures, and compositions of matter), copyrights (original artistic and literary works of), trademarks (commercial symbols), and trade secrets ((product formulas, patterns, des igns). Intellectual property rights has a significant valueRead MoreThe Effects Of Digital Media On The World Of Copyrights1531 Words   |  7 Pagesfamiliarity to intellectual property or copyright laws. When dealing with sources found digitally the laws become even more blurred and confusing; Copyright laws, traditionally, were intended protect authors and artists and physical mediums. Lawmakers’ struggle with copyright law is how to apply laws intended for one purpose to today’s high tech environment fast-paced environment. Laws are continuously being proposed and paced to stop piracy and infringement of intellectual properties (Yearneau, 2010; JamarRead MoreThe Liberties Of The United States Constitution1497 Words   |  6 PagesAmerican citizens have bided by the first 10 commandments in the United States Constitution, otherwise known as the Bill of Rights, for protection over their personal liberties from the United States government. These personal liberties i nclude, but are not limited to: The freedom of religion, speech, and press, the protection of privacy, and the right to life, liberty, and property. These personal liberties protected by the government, from the government, have always been strictly enforced with no unknownRead MoreThe Rights Of The Man And The Right Of Law731 Words   |  3 PagesMidterm #2 Prompt 2 The Rights of the Man and The Right of law Even if both Mill and Marx starts from the acknowledgement that the rights have legal groundings, two men focus on different aspects, and evaluate them differently: Mill thinks that the rights of the man increase the social cohesion through rights directly affecting the social utility, while Marx thinks that the rights of the man alienates one from another to undoubtedly make an individual into a self-centered individual who is distanced from

How Does Keats Express His Aesthetic Vision in ‘Ode on a...

How does Keats express his aesthetic vision in ‘Ode on a Grecian Urn’? John Keats once said regarding Lord Byron that â€Å"he (Byron) describes what he sees, I describe what I imagine†. Keats is a typically Romantic poet in the way in which he uses the fluid boundaries of imagination within his poem to formulate his aesthetic vision which is projected in ‘Ode on a Grecian Urn’. Pope notes that the etymology of ‘aesthetics’ derives from the Greek meaning ‘things perceptible to the sense’ and ‘sensory impressions’; within the poem Keats uses evocative techniques to project the ‘refined sense of pleasure’ which he receives from observing the ancient piece. For Keats, the piece of art represents a timeless beauty which he longs to achieve†¦show more content†¦The repeated questions in the final lines of the first stanza build a mounting anticipation and also enhance the mystery as to the aesthetic beauty of the urn; there appear to be many unanswered questions regarding the st ories which are told within the art work and Keats is intrigued to unravel the secrets which it holds. The questions simultaneously increase the ambiguity of the urn and create Keats’ aesthetic vision of the object within the reader. Pope comments that the aesthetic is ‘an aversion to the ordinary and ugly’; Keats’ repeated questions enhance the reader’s belief that there is nothing simple or plain about the urn, with: â€Å"What mad pursuit? What struggle to escape† producing a vivid display of the feelings and the emotions of those figures who are immortalised within the urn. By using â€Å"struggle†, Keats acknowledges the desperation of the characters to be freed from the marble prison which they are cemented. The verb enhances the aesthetic vision of the art as Keats produces a new dimension to the object which begins to establish the tale of the â€Å"marble men† which he observes. The story of the â€Å"little town† is further developed by the â€Å"wild ecstasy† of the young couple suggesting a thrilling relationship between the lovers who are pictured, increasing the aesthetic vision of the urn as an element of a sexualShow MoreRelatedThree Texts That Describe Transcendence Is John Donne â€Å"Batter1508 Words   |  7 PagesThree texts that describe transcendence is John Donne â€Å"Batter My Heart† for its transcendence in the ways of perfection through religion. The knowledge-based transcendence of Shelley’s Hymn to Intellectual Beauty. And the sweet Keats idea of transcending past time through the arts. In this text, Donne character is a man who wants the Christian God to transform him. Donne narrator wants God to beat him till he’s worthy in the eyes of God figure, â€Å"You’re force to break blow burn and make me new.†(DonneRead MoreSimilarities and Dissimilarities Between Shelley and Keats6975 Words   |  28 PagesSimilarities and dissimilarities Though P. B. Shelley and John Keats were mutual friends, but they have possessed the diversified qualities in their creativity. These two are the great contributors of English Literature, though their lifecycle were very short. Their comparison are also little with each other, while each are very much similar in thoughts, imagination, creation and also their lifetime. 01)  Attitude towards the Nature P. B. Shelley: Whereas older Romantic poets looked at nature as

Diametrically Opposite Perfect Competition â€Myassignmenthelp.Com

Question: Discuss About The Diametrically Opposite Perfect Competition? Answer: Introducation Monopoly has 1 firm, while perfect competition has many firms Monopoly faces a down sloping demand curve, while a firm in perfect competition has a horizontal demand curve. The monopolist is a price maker, while a firm in a price taker in perfect competition. Monopoly has entry barriers while perfect competition has free entry and exit of firms. A monopolistic competition market structure is closer to perfect competition, than to monopoly. In monopolistic competition there are less firms as compared to a perfect competition. Each firm in monopolistic competition faces an elastic demand curve that slopes down- each firm has limited control over price. All goods are homogeneous in perfect competition, while they are differentiated in monopolistic competition. This differentiation leads to the birth of a product group, which consists of goods that are close substitutes of each other. Perfect competition and monopolistic competition are similar as they do not allow abnormal profits in the long run, and allow free entry and exit of firms. . Such firms face a downward sloping curve, which means that price and quantity are inversely related. If they increase quantity then they face a lower price, which reduces profits. Ina way they face a tradeoff between lowering average cost( by increasing quantity) and lower price. The balance between price and average cost is reached by equating marginal revenue with marginal cost. FALSE, because a firm in monopolistic competitive structure cannot make positive economic profits in the long run. This is because there is free entry and exit. If profits exist new firms will enter and ensure prices are lowered till all positive profits are wiped out. Equilibrium is reached when only normal profits are made. Option A is best. This is because AVC P ATC which implies losses in the short run. The firm continues as variable costs are covered by revenues. In the long run such losses will lead to closure as the monopolist cant continue with losses in long run. Option b is wrong as the firm will not shut down since variable costs are covered. Also once it shuts down it cant start again in long run unless some other factors change. Option c is wrong because shut down and exit are the same thing. The firm will do none. Option d is incorrect as a monopolist cant continue with losses in long run. MR at each point= change in TR/ change in Q P Q TR = P*Q MR 50 0 0 - 40 5 200 200/5=40 30 10 300 100/5=20 20 20 400 100/10=10 15 30 450 =50/10=5 10 50 500 =50/20=2.5 5 102 510 =10/52 = 0.192 2.5 200 500 10/92= 0.108 MC= 5. We use the MC=MR rule. The point where MR=MC is the equilibrium point that maximizes profits. As per the table MR=5 at Q = 30 and P=15 Yes GOOGLE is a monopoly in a narrow sense. This sense considers firms that provide all the services that Google does. No firm has the range of services that Google does, which makes it a monopoly. However there are some substitutes of various services offered by Google, which break the monopoly of Google. Hence the real answer lies in how we define the product group to which Google belongs. References IMperfect Competition . (n.d.). Retrieved july 31, 2017, from Colarado.edu: https://www.colorado.edu/Economics/courses/Markusen/fall05-4413-001/unotes7.pdf perfect competition. (n.d.). Retrieved August 2, 2017, from Staffwww.fullcoll.edu: https://staffwww.fullcoll.edu/fchan/Micro/4perfect_competition.htm

Life-Changing Experience free essay sample

The day was as dark as a bats cave. I had that gut feeling that something was going too happened. That day I was aware of everything that was happening around me. At school nothing bad or wrong happened to me so I thought I was safe for the day, o how I was wrong. I was on my way home and I could already spot my mom waiting at the door, I started to get a bit worried and went home without speaking a thing. As I approached the door my stomach started to hurt from almost nothing to very worse. My mom spoke and said â€Å"what s this?† she had found my report card. She had already seen that I was failing two classes so there was no possible way to make up a lie. She was so furious she looked like a bright red tomato. She said she was really disappointed and explained to me why. We will write a custom essay sample on Life-Changing Experience or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page She explained to me that when she was younger she was going to school as well but she was not able to finish school because my grandmother took her out of school. She explained that she was very furies because she was giving me the chance to go to school but I was not taking advantage of my opportunity. I started to further think about what we had talked about and I started to understand that she was correct; I had to take advantage of the opportunity she was giving me and do well in school so I can have a good life for myself but also a good life to help her. I then started to work harder and harder to make her and myself proud. She always was working hard to make sure that I had everything that I needed so I knew I had to work hard as well. She always said that she was not able to graduate from high school but she knew that I would do well and finish her goal which was to graduate and go to college. I started to work harder and my grades showed the improvement. After I had that talked with my mom I started to get honor roll and certificates and I knew that I had done the right decision in doing better in school. I believe that this life experience has helped me for the better of my life. This life experience has helped me because I know that if I would have kept the way I was doing in school I would probably not even be in school writing this essay. This has also helped me to realize that not everyone is as lucky to get free education like me and the people that do have free education don’t take advantage they take things for granted unlike the kids that have to pay for their education.

The Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh Essays - Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh

The Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh Hindu revivalism remains a growing force in India today. It is also a concern among the millions of displaced Hindus scattered around the world. Its roots lie in the belief that Hinduism is an endangered lifestyle. This notion is fuelled by the political assertiveness of minority groups, efforts to convert Hindus to other faiths, suspicions that the political authorities are sympathetic to minority groups and the belief that foreign political and religious ideologies are destroying the Hindu community. Every morning at sunrise, groups of men in military-style uniforms gather together before saffron coloured flags, in all parts of India, to participate in a common set of rituals, physical exercises and lessons. For one hour each day, they are taught to think of themselves as a family with a mission to transform Hindu society. (Andersen and Damle 1) They are the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS), the largest and most influential organization in India committed to Hindu revivalism. The RSS or National Volunteer Organization, is perhaps the most interesting of any of India's social movements. The growth of the RSS provides a detailed illustration of India's changing face. The purpose of this paper is to provide the reader with an early twentieth century view of an organization that emerged out of frustrations among India's Hindu revivalists. These revivalists were discontent with the work of nationalists in politics, and determined to unify the Hindus of India against the ?alien? threa ts within the nation. The origins of nationalist movements in nineteenth century India can be traced to the expansion of Western, English education. Those attracted to the new education came primarily from high caste Hindu groups. Many of the proponents of social, political and religious reform among Hindus were drawn from this English educated class. Until very late in the nineteenth century, most politically articulate Indians were willing to collaborate with the colonial administration. However, a shift from collaboration to criticism began in the latter part of the nineteenth century. Two broad movements emerged among Hindus seeking to define their national identity: modernists and revivalists. The modernists adopted models of social and political change based upon Western patterns; they appreciated many of the Western philosophies and wanted India to follow suit. The revivalist view was based on returning to a Hindu antiquity that was thought to be superior for governing India?a ?Hindu? nation. Many felt that this desire to recreate the age of Hindu grandeur was also a result of English education; ideas of patriotism and nationalism crept into these peoples way of thought. It was the English study of the Indian way of life that added to the revivalist movement. Revivalism included those who wanted to preserve the traditional social order as well as those who sought to reform Hindu society as a way of strengthening Hindu solidarity. The RSS traces its roots to the revivalist feelings that were present at that time. The Hindu revivalists sought to recover fundamental truths about their people. They argued that the loss of national consciousness had created conditions that facilitated British domination of the land. By appealing to an idealized past, the revivalists reminded the Hindu public of the suffering and degradation experienced under British rule. The call for independence was a logical next-step, for the degraded present could only be overcome by eliminating the foreign intruders who had supposedly disrupted the original blissful society. Muslim rulers and the British were identified as sources of that disruption and many revivalist spokesmen sought to place limits on their political power and on their cultural influence. The proposed changes in Hindu society were justified by the proposition that the changes were not new at all, but were in fact a revival of older, purer forms of Hindu culture that had degenerated during foreign rule. Opposition to British rule increased among both the moderates and the more extremists, as the contradictions between colonial rule and new aspirations became obvious. Criticism of India's colonial status was supported by observation of British attitudes. The British viewed Indians and Indian culture as inferior. Educated Indians were considerably upset when the British began to characterize them as feminine, cowardly and unrepresentative of the native culture. The racial arrogance often expressed by European officials, businessmen and

Why This School Essay Examples Is Important

Why This School Essay Examples Is ImportantThere are plenty of different reasons why a student should look at the different essay examples that are offered by this school. Writing the perfect essay is a skill that all students should learn, but it is a skill that is often overlooked. The school essay samples are easy to read and can be written in a short period of time.The reason why a student should consider the school essay samples is because they can be easy to understand and are much more enjoyable to write than a typical essay. Writing a common essay that seems difficult to write is often tiresome for students. The school essay samples allow the student to write a simple statement about themselves or another individual in their situation.One of the most common types of essays is based on a life story. A student will have to do some research in order to get started with this type of essay, but it is not nearly as difficult as other types of essays. Many teachers encourage their s tudents to use these essays as a way to prepare for the GRE.The formatting of the essay is another important factor. Since there are many different formats available, students can always find one that they like and incorporate it into their own essay. When this school essay samples are used correctly, students will see an increase in their scores on the GRE.Writing an essay is a skill that should be learned from an early age. Students should look at the writing samples for different types of essays and compare them to the real writing skills of a student. This allows them to determine what they will need to improve on to be able to compete with other students.Most students love to receive an A for their grade and write a great essay that clearly demonstrates how they made the grade. However, many students do not do well on essays due to their writing skills. When a student takes a look at the essay samples, they can learn how to write a better essay and be able to earn a high grade. There are many different styles of writing that a student can use for a high-quality essay. It is important for the student to read as many different essays as possible. When they do this, they will see a variety of different writing styles and can choose the best one for their unique circumstances.The reason why a student should take a look at the essay samples is because it gives them the chance to compare a variety of different writing styles and learn about the different writing styles that are available. It also allows the student to see the different forms that essays take and how to write a great essay. When the essay is strong, the student will continue to gain an understanding of the various styles of writing and will be ready to take the writing skills that they have learned.

THE BUBONIC PLAGUE Essays - Plague, Bubonic Plague, Yersinia Pestis

THE BUBONIC PLAGUE Essays - Plague, Bubonic Plague, Yersinia Pestis THE BUBONIC PLAGUE Rana Kundu Introduction Plague, was a term that was applied in the Middle Ages to all fatal epidemic diseases, but now it is only applied to an acute, infectious, contagious disease of rodents and humans, caused by a short, thin, gram-negative bacillus. In humans, plague occurs in three forms: bubonic plague, pneumonic plague, and septicemic plague. The best known form is the bubonic plague and it is named after buboes, or enlarged, inflamed lymph nodes, which are characteristics of the plague in the groin or neck or armpit. Bubonic plague can only be transmitted by the bite of any of numerous insects that are normally parasitic on rodents and that seek new hosts when the original host dies. If the plague is left untreated it is fatal in thirty to seventy five percent of all cases. Mortality in treated cases is only five to ten percent. History Of The Bubonic Plague The origin of the bubonic plague is unknown but it may have started in Africa or India. Colonies of infected rats were established in Northern India, many years ago. Some of these rodents had infected traders on the route between the Middle East and China. After 1330 the plague had invaded China. From China it was transferred westward by traders and Mongol armies in the 14th century. While these traders were travelling westward they followed a more northerly route through the grasslands of what is now Russia, thus establishing a vast infected rodent population there. In 1346 the disease reached Crimea and found its way to Europe in 1347. The outbreak in Europe was a devastating one, which resulted in more than 25 million deaths-about twenty five percent of the continent's whole population. After that the plague reappeared irregularly in many European cities until the early 18th century, when it suddenly stopped there. No explanation has ever been given for the plague's rapid disappearance. Symptoms and Causes The first symptoms of the bubonic plague are headache, vomiting, nausea, aching joints and a feeling of ill health. The lymph nodes of the groin or of the armpit or neck suddenly start to become swollen and painful. The pulse and respiration rate of a bubonic plague victim is increased, and the victim will become listless and exhausted. The buboes will swell until they are approximately the size of a chicken egg. If a case is nonfatal than the temperature will begin to fall in about five days, and approaches normal in about two weeks, but in fatal cases death will probably occur within four days. Yersinia Pestis, an infectious agent is the cause of the Bubonic Plague. Yersina Pestis is a bacteria, which means the cells lack the internal organization of eukaryotic cells. These bacteria cells would contain the membrane but they would not be able to subdivide the inside of the cell. These bacteria cells do not have a nucleus so instead they have a nucleiod that contains genetic material. The two types of bacteria cells are gram-negative and gram-positive. Yersina Pestis is gram negative and that means that antibiotics are less effective on the plague because of a lipopolysaccharide layer over their walls that adds extra protection. Lymphatic System The bubonic plague has a major impact on the lymphatic system. The lymphatic system is made up of lymph nodes, lymphatic vessels, lymphoid organs and circulating lymphocytes. Plague victims tend to have large bumps on their bodies which are called "buboes". These are actually swollen lymph nodes filled with puss. The spread of the infection causes the lymph nodes to become hard and painful. The lymph nodes are heavily concentrated in the neck, armpits, and groin. When a person becomes ill these areas will begin to swell because the body needs to make a vast amount of white blood cells to fight off whatever pathogen has entered the body. To make all parts of the body function properly the "electron transport chain" is needed. Yersina pestis releases a toxin into the body that obstructs this function from occurring. Prevention and Treatment Many preventive measures can be used to reduce the spread of the plague (sanitation, killing of rats, prevention in transport of rats). Individuals who contract the disease are isolated, fed fluids and put to bed. During World War II, scientists using sulfa

Broad Classification Of Work Motivational Theories Commerce Essay

Broad Classification Of Work Motivational Theories Commerce Essay The work motivation theories can be broadly classified as content theories and process theories. The content theories are concerned with identifying the needs that people have and how needs are prioritized. They are concerned with types of incentives that drive people to attain need fulfillment. The Maslow hierarchy theory, Fredrick Herzberg’s two factor theory and Alderfer’s ERG needs theory fall in this category. Although such a content approach has logic, is easy to understand, and can be readily translated in practice, the research evidence points out limitations. There is very little research support for these models’ theoretical basic and predictability. The trade off for simplicity sacrifices true understanding of the complexity of work motivation. On the positive side, however, the content models have given emphasis to important content factors that were largely ignored by human relationists. In addition the Alderfer’s ERG needs theory allows more flexibility and Herzberg’s two-factor theory is useful as an explanation for job satisfaction and as a point of departure for job design. The process theories are concerned with the cognitive antecedents that go into motivation and with the way they are related to one another. The theories given by Vroom, Porter and Lawler, equity theory and attribution theory fall in this category. These theories provide a much sounder explanation of work motivations. The expectancy model of Vroom and the extensions and the refinements provided by Porter and Lawler help explain the important cognitive variables and how they relate to one another in the process of work motivation. The Porter Lawler model also gives specific attention to the important relationship between performance and satisfaction. A growing research literature is somewhat supportive of these expectancy models, but conceptual and methodological problems remain. Unlike the content models, these expectancy models are relativ ely complex and difficult to translate into actual practice. They have also failed to meet the goals of prediction and control Motivation Theory 1 – Adam’s Equity Theory of Work Motivation The theory explains that a major input into job performance and satisfaction is the degree of equity or inequity that people perceive in work situations. Adam depicts a specific process of how this motivation occurs. Inequality occurs when a person perceives that the ratio of his or her outcomes to inputs and the ratio of a relevant other’s outcomes to inputs are unequal. Our Outcomes Other’s Outcomes = Inequity (over-rewarded) Our Inputs Other’s Inputs Both the inputs and the outputs of the person and the other are based upon the person’s perceptions, which are affected by age, sex, education, social status, organizational position, qualifications, and how hard the person works, etc. Outcomes consist primarily of rewards such as pay, status, promotion, a nd intrinsic interest in the job. Equity sensitivity is the ratio based upon the person’s perception of what the person is giving (inputs) and receiving (outcomes) versus the ratio of what the relevant is giving and receiving. This cognition may or may not be the same as someone else’s observation of the ratios or the same as the actual situation.

Foundation of managing and organising Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Foundation of managing and organising - Essay Example Both big and small decisions need to be made on a daily basis and the people in charge must always have the right capacity to make the right decisions (Heizer & Render, 2004). In the case of the Junction Hotel, it is realized that a number of economic challenges are presently facing the operations of the organization. According to the rational theory, people generally organize activities out of rational motives. Through the application of rational organization, it is seen that efficiency is increased since people are focused on achieving goals an objectives. In this case, costs are brought down as much as possible. In any case, there is no particular style of leadership that is best for all situations. Different situations and environments will normally call for different approaches. The ability to manage an organization effectively largely depends upon the experience and skills of the managers in addition to the type of environment prevailing within the organization. A good leader s hould have the ability to switch from one style of management to another depending on the people and the work in the organization. The role of management at the Junction Hotel basically covers most of the operations realized in conventional organizations. In modern organizations, managers usually influence all phases of the organization. ... In the basic sense, the role of managers involves directing the organization towards the realization of goals. All organizations usually have goals or objectives to accomplish and the managers must therefore use the resources within the organization to achieve these goals (Terry, 2011). In this regard, the hotel manager at Junction Hotel is not simply expected to manage the organization. Management has to find solutions, innovate and create opportunities within and outside the organization. In this respect, organizational managers should be well versed in all the core aspects relating to effective management. Many major organizational failures across the world are usually linked to some miscalculation on the part of the management. An organization is a collection of different people bearing different skills, ideas and behaviors. Managers should therefore harness and utilize this diversity to the benefit of the organization. All managers must have the focus of directing the organizati on towards the attainment of its objectives. The role of managers in contemporary organization usually revolves around three functional areas: interpersonal role, informational role and decisional role (Certo & Ross, 2007). Interpersonal role refers to the interaction of the manager with people within and outside the organization. In most cases, the duties of the manager are symbolic and ceremonial in a way. It therefore calls for effective interaction with all parties in the organization in order to create a harmonious working environment which is crucial for the success of an organization. For instance, manager should attend social functions and award certificates to the outstanding employees. In the same way, the manager should act as a leader

Special Education Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Special Education - Article Example avior, of which William was also observed to exhibit: inattention: â€Å"often does not seem to listen when spoken to directly† (cited in Foley, Carlton, & Howell, 1996, pp. 341-342); hyperactivity: â€Å"often leaves seat in classroom or in other situations in which remaining seated is expected; often runs about or climbs excessively in situations in which it is inappropriate† (APA, 1994, cited in Foley, Carlton, & Howell, 1996, p. 342). Concurrently, the behaviors that suggest that this may be a conduct disorder are as follows: aggression: â€Å"often bullies, threatens, or intimidates; often initiates physical fights; has been physically cruel to people† (APA, 1994, cited in Foley, Carlton, & Howell, 1996, p. 342); and destruction of property: â€Å"has deliberately destroyed others property† (APA, 1994, cited in Foley, Carlton, & Howell, 1996, p. 342). In making any recommendations or actions to address William’s dilemma, the legal considerations that must be taken into account include the use of excess force to restrain William and which could cause harm and injury to him; and implementing interventions that run counter to those recommended by the DHS or the surrogate mother, without proper court order or legal approval. Foley, H., Carlton, C., & Howell, R. (1996). The Relationship of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and Conduct Disorder to Juvenile Delinquency: Legal Implications. Retrieved from Bull Am Acad Psychiatry Law:

Java vs C :: Essays Papers

Java vs C Java vs. C++ papers = Since their inception, computers have played an increasingly important role in today’s society. Advancements in technology have enabled computers to become faster and cheaper. Today, the majority of families own a home computer that is vastly more powerful than giant mainframes of years gone by. Computer hardware has been evolving rapidly with no end in sight, and with all of the advancements in computer hardware come advancements in computer software; gone are the days when FORTRAN and COBOL were the languages of choice. Today, vvv two hot new object oriented programming languages have entered the computer programming arena, Java and C++, this paper will examine the similarities and differences between these new languages. Both Java and C++ are object oriented programming languages, but what does that mean? Object oriented programming (OOP) emphasizes data, instead of algorithms for solving problems. Instead of trying to fit a problem to the procedural a pproach of a language, OOP attempts to fit the language to the problem, in other words, OOP is structured to produce an answer without changing the question. Object oriented programming involves two separate parts, class and objects. Class is a specification that describes a new data form, it is a template that defines how an object will look and behave.(Kaj 1996, 8) An object is that particular data structure constructed using the parameters defined by class.(Prata 1995, 5) The object oriented programming approach to program design is to first design classes that accurately represent those things with which the program deals. A drawing program, for example, might define classes to represent rectangles, lines, circles, brushes, pens, and the like. The class definitions, recall, include a descriptions of permissible options for each class, such as moving a circle or rotating a line.(Prata 1995, 5) The main advantages of OOP, besides being able to create more complex software, and dev elop answers without changing the questions, are numerous. OOP facilitates creating reusable code, which can save a lot of work. Information can be hidden to safeguard data from improper access. Polymorphism lets the programmer create multiple definitions for operators and functions, with the programming context determining which definition is used, also Inheritance lets the programmer derive new classes from older ones. When using OOP, the programmer can focus on representing concepts, instead of concentrating on tasks. (Prata 1995, 6) Java, although in many respects similar to C++, is actually just a more simplified version of the latter.

It Report on Networking

CHAPTER ONE 1. 0INTRODUCTION 1. 1BACKGROUND SIWES was established by ITF in 1973 to solve the problem of lack of adequate practical skills preparatory for employment in industries by Nigerian graduates of tertiary institutions. The Scheme exposes students to industry based skills necessary for a smooth transition from the classroom to the world of work. It affords students of tertiary institutions the opportunity of being familiarized and exposed to the needed experience in handling machinery and equipment which are usually not available in the educational institutions.Participation in Industrial Training is a well-known educational strategy. Classroom studies are integrated with learning through hands-on work experiences in a field related to the student’s academic major and career goals. Successful internships foster an experiential learning process that not only promotes career preparation but provides opportunities for learners to develop skills necessary to become leaders in their chosen professions. One of the primary goals of the SIWES is to help students integrate leadership development into the experiential learning process.Students are expected to learn and develop basic non-profit leadership skills through a mentoring relationship with innovative non-profit leaders. By integrating leadership development activities into the Industrial Training experience, we hope to encourage students to actively engage in non-profit management as a professional career objective. However, the effectiveness of the SIWES experience will have varying outcomes based upon the individual student, the work assignment, and the supervisor/mentor requirements.It is vital that each internship position description includes specific, written learning objectives to ensure leadership skill development is incorporated. Participation in SIWES has become a necessary pre-condition for the award of Diploma and Degree certificates in specific disciplines in most institutions of hig her learning in the country, in accordance with the education policy of government. Operators-The ITF, the coordinating agencies (NUC, NCCE, NBTE), employers of labor and the institutions. Funding-The Federal Government of Nigeria Beneficiaries- Undergraduate students of the following:Agriculture, Engineering, Technology, Environmental, Science, Education, Medical Science and Pure and Applied Sciences. Duration -Four months for Polytechnics and Colleges of Education, and Six months for the Universities. 1. 2 OBJECTIVES 1. SIWES will provide students the opportunity to test their interest in a particular career before permanent commitments are made. 2. SIWES students will develop skills in the application of theory to practical work situations. 3. SIWES will provide students the opportunity to test their aptitude for a particular career before permanent commitments are made. 4.SIWES students will develop skills and techniques directly applicable to their careers. 5. SIWES will aid st udents in adjusting from college to full-time employment. 6. SIWES will provide students the opportunity to develop attitudes conducive to effective interpersonal relationships. 7. SIWES will increase a student's sense of responsibility. 8. SIWES students will be prepared to enter into full-time employment in their area of specialization upon graduation. 9. SIWES students will acquire good work habits. 10. SIWES students will develop employment records/references that will enhance employment opportunities. 1. SIWES will provide students with an in-depth knowledge of the formal functional activities of a participating organization. 12. SIWES will provide students the opportunity to understand informal organizational interrelationships. 13. SIWES students will have higher levels of academic performances. 14. SIWES will increase student earning potential upon graduation. 15. SIWES Students will be able to outline at least five specific goals with several staff members by comparing perf ormance with job duties and develop a draft plan with staff to accomplish performance needs, supervision plan and rewards. . 3BRIEF HISTORY OF THE ESTABLISHMENT OF ATTACHMENT The Information communication Department in the Governor’s office was first established in 2003 as a unit by the then Governor of the State, Governor Donald Duke. In 2007 it became a Department with Nine Units namely, 1. Training unit 2. Maintenance unit 3. Networking unit 4. Information system application 5. Audit unit 6. Account unit 7. PRS unit 8. Administration 9. Support unit 1. 4BRIEF DUTIES OF EACH UNITTRAINING UNIT- this unit does the training of students in Computer literacy and also runs a certificate program in CCNA and project management, comptia A+ MAINTENANCE UNIT- This Unit is in charge of maintenance of all computer systems in the department NETWORKING UNIT- This unit is in charge of Network administration in the department and in all the MDAs and the Governor’s office, this unit t akes care of the states network affairs INFORMATION SYSTEM APPLICATION UNIT- This unit is in charge of the database of the establishment Support unit- this unit is in or supports the network unit in network administration.GOALS Vision to be a leading ICT driven state in the country Mission to create an information rich, knowledge driven society RESPONSIBILITIES Is to make sure that we meet our client requirement and need in the various MDA and give them better service delivery CHAPTER TWO 2. 0 LITERATURE REVIEWIn the course of my training with the ICT Department in Governor’s Office I was privileged to work with the support Unit which is in charge of administration of the Cross River State Network the Cross River State Network this works with the Database Center at the Governor’s Office where the Network Operating Centre(NOC) is Located This Units is in charge of the network and makes sure that all Ministries Departments Agencies are Connected to the network at all tim es, in case of Network breach the units does troubleshooting to rectify the problems as fast as possible. . 1NETWORK DOMAIN AND ADMINISTRATION. (SUMMARY ON THE CROSS RIVER STATE NETWORK) Cross River State Network uses a domain to organize the network environment. Domains are groups of PCs on the same network and are a method to isolate communications between the members in the domain and the other data traffic. Anyone in a domain can communicate with each other and out bound, however PCs not defined in the domain cannot communicate with those in the domain.Basically the network starts from when the satellite in space sends radio signals down to the satellite dish receiver (ku-band, ka-band, c-band e. t. c). This satellite dish receiver is connected to the private port of the internet modem then the public port of the modem is connected to the ISA server which acts as the gateway to internet access. The ISA server is connected to a domain controller which controls the domain environm ent by granting anyone who has a registered account on the domain access to the internet recourse.I. e. anyone who does not have an account or valid log on credentials cannot use the internet. Domain controller can also be used to control the network environment by restricting the rights to chance setting on the workstation so that only administrative rights can alter settings. The ISA server is also connected to an antivirus server which monitors the automatic updates and downloading of update for all workstation in the domain with a specific antivirus used for the network installed on them.The ISA server is also connected to a 24 port switch which is connected to the different switch cabinet in each directorate of office buildings (since it is a 24 port switch it take a maximum of 23 directorates, another switch can be connected to the first switch in case of more buildings). Ever building has a cabinet where LAN (local area network) connections are distributed to different office s. The cabinet comprises of switches and patch panels. The patch panel is a device that is used as a repeater so that signals don’t get loss over a long cable.One of the cables that comes from the main 24 port switch goes to the patch panel then a RJ-45 cable is connected from the patch panel to the switch (mostly a 24-port switch) in the cabinet (in case of two switches we have two patch panels. ). The patch panel then distributes the connection in the office or to other offices in the building as LAN port where workstations can be connected to by the use of RJ-45 cable (workstations can also be connected directly to the switch). As for wireless connection, a wireless router or access point is placed at every passage way in each building.The wireless access point is either connected to one of the switches in the cabinet or the main 24-port switch. 2. 2 ISA SERVER/PROXY SERVER/GATEWAY The ISA server also acts as a proxy server/gateway. A proxy server is a server that acts as an intermediary between a workstation user and the Internet so that the enterprise can ensure security, administrative control, and caching service. A proxy server is associated with or part of a gateway server that separates the enterprise network from the outside network and a firewall server that protects the enterprise network from outside intrusion.An advantage of a proxy server is that its cache can serve all users. If one or more Internet sites are frequently requested, these are likely to be in the proxy's cache, which will improve user response time. A proxy can also do logging. A user on a workstation which is connected to the domain can only view the internet if the address and port number of the ISA server is set in the proxy address and port settings. 2. 3 HOW TO SET THE PROXY SETTINGS: †¢STEP 1: Click tools then click internet options on the browser. STEP 2: Click on the connection tab and then click LAN settings. †¢STEP 3: Type in the ISA server ip-address ( e. g. 192. 168. 2. 1) in the address box and also insert the port number (e. g. 3128). 2. 4 HOW TO JOIN A WORKSTATION TO A DOMAIN STEP 1: right-click on my-computer then clicks properties. STEP 2: click on system properties. STEP 3: Click on computer name tab, click change. STEP 4: Type in the computer name (e. g. pro 10), then click the domain radio button and type in the domain name (e. g. dpetri. net), then click ok.STEP 5: After clicking OK you would prompt with a username and password dialog box where only those with administrative credentials would be able to logon. Type in the user name and password, and then click OK. STEP 5: After clicking OK, you would be prompted with a dialog box welcoming you to the domain. Then restart the system. 2. 5 ANTIVIRUS SERVER The antivirus server is a separate system that is connected to the ISA server. It is used to protect the network from harmful treats like spyware (i. e. worm, virus, adware e. t. c. ).The antivirus server makes use of wi ndows server 2003 operating system, with a network antivirus (e. g. e-trust) installed on it. For any workstation on the network to be protected by the network antivirus server a copy of the network antivirus must be installed on them. To make the antivirus copy work with the antivirus server the proxy settings must be set using the antivirus server Ip-address (e. g. 192. 168. 2. 4) as the address in the proxy settings. 2. 6 MAIN SWITCH The main switch is a switch that is used to distribute the network connection to different buildings.A switch is a device that is used to link systems or workstations together. A switch is mainly used in a star topology. Properties of a switch: †¢Collision: this is the jamming of signal in a transmission medium. †¢Collision domain: this is the environment in which collision occurs. †¢ Broadcast: this is the sending of signal from a system to the rest of the system connected to the switch. A broadcast is usually sent across all the coll ision domains as one virtual domain. †¢Broadcast domain: this is the environment in which a broadcast is sent across. Multicast: this is the sending of signal from one system to a selected group of systems connected to the switch. †¢Unicast: this is a signal that is sent from one system to another. 2. 7PATCH PANEL A patch panel is a panel of network ports contained together, usually within a telecommunications closet that connects incoming and outgoing lines of a LAN or other communication, electronic or electrical system. In a LAN, the patch panel connects the network's computers to each other and to the outside lines that enable the LAN to connect to the Internet or another WAN.Connections are made with patch cords. The patch panel allows circuits to be arranged and rearranged by plugging and unplugging the patch cords. The use of a patch panel is necessary because is help to repeat signals travelled over a cable from a long distance to prevent data loss. A patch panel i s connected to a switch respectively according to the number on each port of both the switch and patch panel. 2. 8 ROUTER/VPN A router is a device or a computer that is used to connect two or more networks together. Routers are physical devices that join multiple wired or wireless networks together.Technically, a wired or wireless router is a Layer 3 gateway, meaning that the wired/wireless router connects networks (as gateways do), and that the router operates at the network layer of the OSI model. A router can also be called a computer because it has a LAN-port, an operating system (OS) and memory. A router has an operating system and a user interface (depending on the brand of the router). The user interface can be viewed by connecting the router via LAN-cable to a computer. 2. 8 STEPS TO VIEW THE USER INTERFACE OF A ROUTER: Know the default IP-address of the router (usually 192. 168. 0. 1). †¢Connect the router to a computer. †¢Open a browser. †¢Click on the file tab. †¢Click on open then a dialog box appears. †¢ Type in the IP-address of the router in the text box and click OK, then a logon dialog box appears. The default username and password are both admin and admin. †¢ Type in the username and password then click OK. In the user interface you can change the Ip-address to suit your company setting, change the security protocol (i. e. either WAP, WAP2, WEB e. t. c), router name e. t. VPN: A VPN (virtual private network) is a device that uses a series of encryption and algorithms to secure the data transmitted over the public internet. It allows users to work on their company network from their home with a higher level of confidence that no one else can access their work i. e. it provides a level of encryption so that an outsider would not be able to hack in to the network. VPN eliminates distance between two computers and establish a secured connection with two computers. A VPN can also act as a router in the sense that it c an be used for connecting two or more networks together.CHAPTER THREE 3. 1HARDWARE AND MAINTAINNACE During the course of training I was also fortunate to receive lectures and training on comptia A+ that is hardware and maintenance which covered Knowledge on system maintenance as a whole approaches on how to prevent system damage. A computer system basically contains the following components/devices: System case, Mother board, Processor, Memory, Graphics card, Sound card, Modem, NIC Card, Hard disk CD-ROM/DVD-ROM Monitor. SYSTEM CASE: A system case is required to hold all your components together. It houses all the internal component of a system.The system cases come in two form factors which are AT and ATX. Nearly all the cases made nowadays are ATX as the motherboard manufacturers make majority of their motherboard in the ATX form. MOTHERBOARD: A motherboard is the central printed circuit board (PCB) in a computer that holds many of the crucial components of the system, while provi ding connectors for other peripherals. The motherboard is sometimes alternatively known as the main board, system board. PROCESSOR: The processor (CPU, for Central Processing Unit) is the computer's brain.It allows the processing of numeric data, information entered in binary form, and the execution of instructions stored in memory. The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is responsible for interpreting and executing most of the commands from the computer's hardware and software. It is often called the â€Å"brains† of the computer. MEMORY: A memory is the name given to a silicon chips that stores volatile computer data. The word Volatile means that the contents of memory will be lost if the power of the computer switched off. Memory stores some of your operating system and application data while it is being run.The more memory you have in your computer the higher the amount of application you can run simultaneously, and will provide an overall better system performance. Memory com es in different forms. The older system uses SDRAM, while Fig 3. 1 A typical system board The current system uses DDR-SDRAM (Double Data Rate Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory). Fig 3. 2 3. 2. SYSTEM BOARD COMPONENTS Now that you understand the basic types of motherboards and their form factors, it’s time to look at the components found on the motherboard and their locations relative to each other Figure 3. illustrates many of the following components found on a typical motherboard: * Chipsets * Expansion slots * Memory slots and external cache * CPU and processor slots or sockets * Power connectors * Onboard disk drive connectors * Keyboard connectors * Peripheral port and connectors * BIOS chip * CMOS battery * Jumpers and DIP switches * Firmware CHIPSETS A chipset is usually designed to work with a specific family of microprocessors. Because it controls communications between the processor and external devices, the chipset plays a crucial role in determining system performance.The manufacturer of a chipset often is independent from the manufacturer of the motherboard. Current manufacturers of chipsets for PC-compatible motherboards include NVIDIA, AMD, VIA Technologies, Intel and Broadcom. There can only be two (2) chipsets in a computer namely Northbridge and Southbridge. NORTHBRIDGE The Northbridge links the CPU to very high-speed devices, especially main memory and graphics controller’s . The communications between the CPU and memory occur over what is known as the front side bus (FSB), which is just a set of signal pathways between the CPU and main memory.The Northbridge chipsets also manage the communications between the Southbridge Chipset and the rest of the computer SOUTHBRIDGE Southbridge connects to lower-speed peripheral buses (such as PCI or ISA). In many modern chipsets, the Southbridge actually contains some on-chip integrated peripherals, such as Ethernet, USB, and audio devices. A typical motherboard chipset for Pentium architecture. EXPANSION SLOTS The most visible parts of any motherboard are the expansion slots. These look like small plastic slots, usually from 3 to 11 inches long and approximately 1? 2 inch wide.As their name suggests, these slots are used to install various devices in the computer to expand its capabilities. Some expansion devices that might be installed in these slots include video, network, sound, and disk interface cards. If you look at the motherboard in your computer, you will more than likely see one of the Main types of expansion slots used in computers today: * ISA * PCI * AGP * PCIe Each type differs in appearance and function. In this section, we will cover how to visually identify the different expansion slots on the motherboard. ISA Expansion SlotsISA bus first appeared in PC based on 80286 CPU. The idea was to put a standard in interfacing with peripheral devices. In our days this bus is kept for compatibility with â€Å"legacy† peripheral devices such as B IOS ROM, Parallel and Serial Ports, Sound and Modem devices. These devices have historical fixed address range (no Plug and Play option) and aren't hurt by low speed of ISA bus (8/16 bit data bus with 8 MHz clock speed). Most modern PCs don't even have extra ISA slots since most peripheral components moved to PCI and USB. ISA bus requires 4 bus cycles for each data transfer. Fig 3. EXPANSION CARD AND SLOT PCI Expansion Slots PCI bus was developed by Intel for high performance peripheral devices, such as graphic accelerators, disk controllers, data acquisition boards. PCI was supposed to overcome limitations of existing ISA bus. 16 bit ISA bus with clock speed of 10 MHz with theoretical bus throughput 2M transfers/sec but practically not more than 500k. PCI bus is much faster: in burst mode PCI can transfer 32 or 64 bit data with 33 MHz or 64 MHz clock, that yields transfer rates from 132 MB/sec to 538 MB/sec, PCI supports huge address range: 32/64 bit address bus instead of 16 bit I SA.It is a burst oriented bus designed for large transfers; hidden bus arbitration among multiple musters is provided on each bus. In theory up to 32 logical devices can reside on PCI bus. But practically, a PCI bus is more likely to have maximum 10 devices because of its low-powered, reflected wave-switching. If more devices is desired PCI to PCI bridge is used. PCI devices are automatically configured in software (Plug and Play option). This eliminates earlier problems with ISA configuration using fixed addresses or user configured switches and jumpers.In recent years some peripheral devices have gotten faster and PCI became too slow for CD and hard disks. Then new interfaces appeared: IDE, SCSI. Fig 3. 4 PCI expansion slot AGP EXPANSION SLOTS AGP port When 3D graphics applications became common, graphic devices were still found on the PCI bus. AGP port provides high speed access to the memory and allows sharing it with local video memory. AGP is not a bus (no competition between devices sitting on the same bus), but port with a dedicated connection between North bridge and graphic accelerator.Speed is 264 MB/s – 1 GB/s Fig 3. 4 An AGP slot PCI EXPANSION SLOTS The newest expansion slot architecture that is being used by motherboards is PCI Express (PCI). It was designed to be a replacement for AGP and PCI. It has the capability of being faster than AGP while maintaining the flexibility of PCI. And motherboards with PCI will have regular PCI slots for backward compatibility with PCI. The diagram below illustrates Pentium IV system. You can see that ISA bus is gone and a new interface introduced: PCI Express. LPC is a subset of PCI (low pin count).PCI Express provides advanced features such as better power management, performance and bandwidth increases, enables support for streaming media, TV tuners, cameras, graphics. POWER CONNECTORS In addition to these sockets and slots on the motherboard, a special connector (shown in allows the motherboard to be connected to the power supply to receive power. This connector is where the ATX power connector plugs in. Fig 3. 5 An ATX power connector Central Processing Unit (CPU) and Processor Socket or Slot The â€Å"brain† of any computer is the central processing unit (CPU).This component does all the calculations and performs 90 percent of all the functions of a computer. There are many different types of processors for computers—so many, typically, in today’s computers, the processor is the easiest component to identify on the motherboard. It is usually the component that has either a fan or a heat sink (usually both) attached to it. These devices are used to draw away the heat a processor generates. This is done because heat is the enemy of microelectronics. Theoretically, a Pentium (or higher) processor generates enough heat that without the heat sink it would self-destruct in a matter of hours.Sockets and slots on the motherboard are as plentiful and varied as proc essors. Sockets are basically flat and have several rows of holes arranged in a square, as shown in Figure 1. 10. The processor slot is another method of connecting a processor to a motherboard, but one into which an Intel Pentium II or Pentium III–class processor on a special expansion card can be inserted. Fig 3. 6 Processors with a fan and heat sinks Fig 3. 7An example of a CPU socket Modern processors can feature the following: OVER CLOCKING: Over clocking your CPU offers increased performance, on a processor designed to operate at the over clocked speed.However, unlike with the processor designed to run that fast, you must make special arrangements to ensure that an over clocked CPU does not destroy itself from the increased heat levels. An advanced cooling mechanism, such as liquid cooling, might be necessary to avoid losing the processor and other components. 3. 3 COMPUTER MEMORY Computer RAM is the best known form of memory your computer uses. Every file or applicatio n opened is placed in RAM. Any information the computer needs or uses becomes part of a continuous cycle where the CPU requests data from RAM, processes it and then writes new data back to RAM.This can happen millions of times a second. However, this is usually just for temporary file storage, so unless the data is saved somewhere, it is deleted when the files or applications are closed 3. 4 HARD DISK DRIVE A hard disk drive (HDD), commonly referred to as a hard drive or hard disk, is a non-volatile storage device which stores digitally encoded data on rapidly rotating platters with magnetic surfaces. Strictly speaking, â€Å"drive† refers to a device distinct from its medium, such as a tape drive and its tape, or a floppy disk drive and its floppy disk.Early HDDs had removable media; however, an HDD today is typically a sealed unit with fixed media. Figure 3. 8 showing a Hard disk and its components. A hard disk drive stores information on one or more rigid, flat, disks. The disks are mounted on a spindle, with spacers in between, and a motor on the bottom end of the spindle. To read and write to the surface of the disks, the drive uses a small electro-magnet assembly, referred to as a head, located on the end of an actuator arm. There is one head for each platter surface on the spindle. The disks are spun at a very high speed to allow the head to move quickly over the surface of the disk.Towards the other end of the actuator arm is a pivot point, and at the end is a voice coil, which moves the head. Above and below each voice coil is a rare earth magnet. This allows the head to move towards the center of the disk or towards the outside, in a radial pattern. Fig 3. 9 Describing inside the HDD 3. 5 PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE OF THE HARD DISK DRIVE The preventive measures are used to improve the performance of the hard disk. The primary tools or utilities available are: Scandisk: This utility can be used to scan surface for media errors, scan files and folde rs for data problem.Scan disk is run each time window is not properly shot down. You should run scan disk at least weekly to find and repair small error on disk before they become major problem. Disk Defragmentation: This utility is use to rearrange your disk files, combined and organized unused disk space so that application run faster. As we modify or delete file on hard disk, file become fragmented. The defragmenter eliminates fragmentation so that data in the file are readily available to program asking for it. Disk Cleanup/delete Unused File: This utility remove unnecessary file from your hard disk.This tool scan the disk you designate to fine files that can be removed without affecting the operation of the PC and the Window operating system. Backup: Backing up hard disk data to another storage media that can be stored outside the PC is also a preventive maintenance. This usually prevent hard disk against failure, PC problem hardware can be replaced but most often data cannot b e recovered, so making a backup copy of your file is a safety precaution that ensure that your data can be outlive on the device on which it is stored.Empty Recycle Bin: The recycle bin should always be emptied at least monthly in order to remove all deleted data, file, programs that are no longer needed. 3. 6 FLOPPY DISK DRIVES Floppy disks, also known as floppies or diskettes (where the suffix -ette means little one) were ubiquitous in the 1980s and 1990s, being used on home and personal computer (â€Å"PC†) platforms such as the Apple II, Macintosh, Commodore 64, Atari ST, Amiga, and IBM PC to distribute software, transfer data between computers, and create small backups.Before the popularization of the hard drive for PCs, floppy disks were typically used to store a computer's operating system (OS), application software, and other data. Many home computers had their primary OS kernels stored permanently in on-board ROM chips, but stored the disk operating system on a flopp y, whether it be a proprietary system, CP/M, or, later, DOS. Since the floppy drive was the primary means of storing programs, it was typically designated as the ‘A:' drive. The second floppy drive was the ‘B:' drive.And those with the luxury of a hard drive were designated the ‘C:' drive, a convention that remains with us today long after the decline of the floppy disk's utility. Fig 3. 10 CD-ROM DRIVES Figure3. 10 showing Old 4x CD-ROM DRIVE CD-ROM discs are read using CD-ROM drives, which are now almost universal on personal computers. A CD-ROM drive may be connected to the computer via an IDE (ATA), SCSI, SATA, Fire wire, or USB interface or a proprietary interface, such as the Panasonic CD interface.Virtually all modern CD-ROM drives can also play audio CDs as well as Video CDs and other data standards when used in conjunction with the right software. 3. 7 INSTALLING THE HARDWARE COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM Things to get in place before starting: Set of sc rewdrivers and pliers, Piece of cloth, CPU Thermal compound (recommended), PC components. Make sure you have all the components in place and a nice, clean and big enough place to work with. Fig 3. 11 All PC components accept the case Tip: CPU Thermal compound is not a necessity but it is recommended to keep your CPU cool under load conditions by helping heat dissipate faster.It is a must if you intend to over clock your PC. Installing the motherboard Fig 3. 12. Open the side doors of the cabinet Lay the cabinet on its side Put the motherboard in place Drive in all the required screws Most motherboards come with an antistatic bag. It is advisable to put the motherboard on it for some time and then remove it from the antistatic bag before placing it in the cabinet. Fig 3. 13 Step 1 Installing the CPU CPU is the heart of a computer so make sure you handle it properly and do not drop it or mishandle it. Steps 1 * Lift the CPU lever on the motherboard Place the CPU properly on the mother board * Pull down the lever to secure the CPU in place Warning: Do not try to push the CPU into the motherboard! Step 2 Got the thermal compound? Now is the time to use it. Take small amount of it and carefully apply it on the top surface of the processor. Be careful not to put it on the neighboring parts of the motherboard. If you do so clean it immediately using the cloth. Tip: Thermal compounds should be changed once every six months for optimal performance. Step 3 installing the heat sink Fig 3. 15 After installing the processor we proceed to installing the heat sink.There are different kinds of heat sinks that are bundled with the processor and each has a different way of installation. Look into your CPU manual for instructions on how to install it properly. Place the heat sink on the processor Put the jacks in place Secure the heat sink with the lever After this you will need to connect the cable of the heat sink on the motherboard. Again look into the motherboard manual on wh ere to connect it and then connect it to the right port to get your heat sink in operational mode. Installing the RAM Fig 3. 16 Installing the RAM is also an easy job.The newer RAMs that is DDR RAMs are easy to install as you don’t have to worry about placing which side where into the slot. The older ones, SDRAMs are plagued by this problem. Push down the RAM into the slot Make sure the both the clips hold the RAM properly Installing the power supply Fig 3. 17 Installing the power supply as the components we install after this will require power cables to be connected to them. There is not much to be done to install a PSU. Place the PSU into the cabinet Put the screws in place tightly Tip: Some PSU have extra accessories that come bundled with it. Consult your PSU manual to see how to install them.Step 6: Installing the video card Fig 3. 18 First you will need to find out whether your video card is AGP or PCI-E. AGP graphics cards have become redundant and are being phased ou t of the market quickly. So if you bought a spanking new card it will certainly be a PCI-E. * Remove the back plate on the cabinet corresponding to the graphics card * Push the card into the slot * Secure the card with a screw * Plug in the power connection from PSU (if required) High-end graphics cards need dedicated power supply and if your graphics card needs one then connect the appropriate wire from PSU into the graphics card.Step 7: Installing the hard disk Fig 3. 19 Hard disk is another fragile component of the computer and needs to be handled carefully. Place the hard drive into the bay Secure the drive with screws If the jumpers or switches are set for the only hard drive or master role, move on. If the jumpers or switches are not configured correctly, move them to the correct position with your needle-nose pliers or your tweezers. Connect the power cable from PSU Connect the data cable from motherboard into the drive If your hard drive is a SATA one then connect one end of SATA cable into the motherboard and other into the SATA port on the hard disk.If your hard disk is PATA type then use the IDE cable instead of the SATA cable. Tip: If your PSU does not support SATA power supply then you will need to get a converter which will convert your standard IDE power connector to a SATA power connector. Fig 3. 20 Testing the Hard disk installation Verify that a monitor, keyboard, and mouse are connected to the PC. Make sure the power cord is connected and that the computer is receiving power. Power up the unit and watch the boot. Step 9: Connecting various cables Fig 3. 21 First we will finish setting up internal components and then get on to the external ones.You will need to consult your motherboard manual for finding the appropriate port for connecting various cables at the right places on the motherboard. Connect the large ATX power connector to the power supply port on your motherboard. Next get hold of the smaller square power connector which supplies power to the processor and connect it to the appropriate port by taking help from your motherboard manual. Connect the cabinet cables for power, reset button in the appropriate port of the motherboard. Connect the front USB/audio panel cable in the motherboard Plug the cable of cabinet fansYou are done with installing the internal components of the PC. Close the side doors of the cabinet and get it upright and place it on your computer table. Get the rest of the PC components like monitor, keyboard, mouse, speakers etc. which we will connect now. Connect the VGA cable of the monitor into the VGA port If mouse/keyboard is PS/2 then connect them to PS/2 ports or else use the USB port Connect the speaker cable in the audio port Fig 3. 22 Plug in the power cable from PSU into the UPS Also plug in the power cable of the monitor You are now done with setting up your PC.Power on and see your PC boot to glory. Step 10: Installing Operating System Here are some useful steps enter your BIOS s ettings instruct the computer to boot from the CD –ROM, insert a bootable disk fold your arms and watch your PC boot to Glory. CHAPTER FOUR 4. 1 NETWORKING AND NETWORK CABLES Knowledge gained on Networking Network is a group of connected computers. This can be as small and simple as two (2) computers connected together or as large and complex as a multisite network that supports thousands of computers and printers and other device.Networking allows for increased communication (video conferencing, real-time chats, e-mailing etc), hardware and software resources sharing (printers, drives, data, files application etc) and Data back up and retrieval. Network models can be any of peer-to-peer or client/server model. Types of network include LAN (Local Area Network), WAN (Wide area network), MAN (Metropolitan Area Network), Virtual LAN, Virtual Private Network, (VPN). 4. 2 NETWORK DEVELOPMENT COMPONENTS Components used to develop a network can be classified broadly into 2 that is H ardware and software The Hardware components include * Computers Modems * Interfaces * Peripherals * Networking cards * Cabling – UTP, STP, Fiber Optics, coaxial * Interconnecting devices, e. g. repeaters routers, hubs, NIC, switches, bridges The software includes operating system (such as MS Dos, UNIX, protocols and other software tools supporting the data communication across the network. The number of components (software and hardware) depends on a number of factors like, type of Network to be used, number of workstation, hosts, PC terminals other peripheral devices to be connected to the Network, data volume, speed of transmission, application program and services required. . 3 MAIN TYPES OF NETWORK TOPOLOGIES In networking, the term â€Å"topology† refers to the layout of connected devices on a network. This article introduces the standard topologies of computer networking. One can think of a topology as a network's virtual shape or structure. This shape does not necessarily correspond to the actual physical layout of the devices on the network. For example, the computers on a home LAN may be arranged in a circle in a family room, but it would be highly unlikely to find an actual ring topology there. Network topologies are categorized into the following basic types: * Star Topology Ring Topology * Bus Topology * Tree Topology * Mesh Topology * Hybrid Topology More complex networks can be built as hybrids of two or more of the above basic topologies. Star Topology: Many home networks use the star topology. A star network features a central connection point called a â€Å"hub† that may be a hub, switch or router. Devices typically connect to the hub with Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Ethernet. Compared to the bus topology, a star network generally requires more cable, but a failure in any star network cable will only take down one computer's network access and not the entire LAN. If the hub fails, however, the entire network also fails. ) See the illustration of Star Network Topology. Fig 4. 1 Advantages of a Star Topology * Easy to install and wire. * No disruptions to the network then connecting or removing devices. * Easy to detect faults and to remove parts. Disadvantages of A Star Topology * Requires more cable length than a linear topology. * If the hub or concentrator fails, nodes attached are disabled. * More expensive than linear bus topologies because of the cost of the concentrators. The protocols used with star configurations are usually Ethernet or Local Talk.Token Ring uses a similar topology, called the star-wired ring. Star-Wired Ring: A star-wired ring topology may appear (externally) to be the same as a star topology. Internally, the MAU of a star-wired ring contains wiring that allows information to pass from one device to another in a circle or ring. The Token Ring protocol uses a star-wired ring topology. Ring Topology: In a ring network, every device has exactly two neighbors for communicatio n purposes. All messages travel through a ring in the same direction (either â€Å"clockwise† or â€Å"counterclockwise†).A failure in any cable or device breaks the loop and can take down the entire network. To implement a ring network, one typically uses FDDI, SONET, or Token Ring technology. Ring topologies are found in some office buildings or school campuses. See the illustration of Ring Topology. Fig 4. 2 Bus Topology: Bus networks (not to be confused with the system bus of a computer) use a common backbone to connect all devices. A single cable, the backbone functions as a shared communication medium that devices attach or tap into with an interface connector.A device wanting to communicate with another device on the network sends a broadcast message onto the wire that all other devices see, but only the intended recipient actually accepts and processes the message. Ethernet bus topologies are relatively easy to install and don't require much cabling compared to the alternatives. 10Base-2 (â€Å"Thin Net†) and 10Base-5 (â€Å"Thick Net†) both were popular Ethernet cabling options many years ago for bus topologies. However, bus networks work best with a limited number of devices. If more than a few dozen computers are added to a network bus, performance problems will likely result.In addition, if the backbone cable fails, the entire network effectively becomes unusable. See the illustration of Bus Network Topology. Fig 4. 3 Advantages of a Linear Bus Topology * Easy to connect a computer or peripheral to a linear bus. * Requires less cable length than a star topology. Disadvantages of a Linear Bus Topology * Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable. * Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable. * Difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts down. * Not meant to be used as a stand-alone solution in a large building.Tree Topology: Tree topologies integrate multiple star to pologies together onto a bus. In its simplest form, only hub devices connect directly to the tree bus and each hub functions as the â€Å"root† of a tree of devices. This bus/star hybrid approach supports future expandability of the network much better than a bus (limited in the number of devices due to the broadcast traffic it generates) or a star (limited by the number of hub connection points) alone. See the illustration of Tree Network Topology. Fig 4. 4 Advantages of a Tree Topology Point-to-point wiring for individual segments.Supported by several hardware and software vendors. Disadvantages of a Tree Topology Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used. If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down. More difficult to configure and wire than other topologies. Mesh Topology: Mesh topologies involve the concept of routes. Unlike each of the previous topologies, messages sent on a mesh network can take any of several possible paths fro m source to destination. (Recall that even in a ring, although two cable paths exist, messages can only travel in one direction. Some WANs, most notably the Internet, employ mesh routing. A mesh network in which every device connects to every other is called a full mesh. As shown in the illustration below, partial mesh networks also exist in which some devices connect only indirectly to others. See the illustration of Mesh Network Topology. Fig 4. 5 Hybrid Topology A combination of any two or more network topologies. Note 1: Instances can occur where two basic network topologies, when connected together, can still retain the basic network character, and therefore not be a hybrid network.For example, a tree network connected to a tree network is still a tree network. Therefore, a hybrid network accrues only when two basic networks are connected and the resulting network topology fails to meet one of the basic topology definitions. For example, two star networks connected together exh ibit hybrid network topologies. Note 2: A hybrid topology always accrues when two different basic network topologies are connected. 4. 4 Network Adapters There are many different names for network adapters, including network cards, Network Interface Cards, NICs. These are all generic terms for the same piece of hardware.A network card’s job is to physically attach a computer to a network, so that the computer can participate in network communications. The first thing that you need to know about network cards is that the network card has to match the network medium. The network medium refers to the type of cabling that is being used on the network. Wireless networks are a science all their own, and I will talk about them in a separate article. At one time making sure that a network card matched the network medium was a really big deal, because there were a large number of competing standards in existence.For example, before you built a network and started buying network cards and cabling, you had to decide if you were going to use Ethernet, coaxal Ethernet, Token Ring, Arcnet, or one of the other networking standards of the time. Each networking technology had its strengths and weaknesses, and it was important to figure out which one was the most appropriate for your organization. Today, most of the networking technologies that I mentioned above are quickly becoming extinct. Pretty much the only type of wired network used by small and medium sized businesses is Ethernet. This is what an Ethernet card looks likeFig 4. 6 4. 5 UTP CABLE TYPES UTP cabling, terminated with RJ-45 connectors, is a common copper-based medium for interconnecting network devices, such as computers, with intermediate devices, such as routers and network switches. Different situations may require UTP cables to be wired according to different wiring conventions. This means that the individual wires in the cable have to be connected in different orders to different sets of pins in the RJ-45 connectors. The following are main cable types that are obtained by using specific wiring conventions: * Ethernet Straight-through Ethernet Crossover * Rollover Using a crossover or straight-through cable incorrectly between devices may not damage the devices, but connectivity and communication between the devices will not take place. This is a common error in the lab and checking that the device connections are correct should be the first troubleshooting action if connectivity is not achieved. Unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) cabling, as it is used in Ethernet LANs, consists of four pairs of color-coded wires that have been twisted together and then encased in a flexible plastic sheath.The twisting has the effect of canceling unwanted signals. When two wires in an electrical circuit are placed close together, external electromagnetic fields create the same interference in each wire. The pairs are twisted to keep the wires in as close proximity as is physically possible. When th is common interference is present on the wires in a twisted pair, the receiver processes it in equal yet opposite ways. As a result, the signals caused by electromagnetic interference from external sources are effectively cancelled. 4. 6UTP CABLING STANDARDSThe UTP cabling commonly found in workplaces, schools, and homes conforms to the standards established jointly by the Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA) and the Electronics Industries Alliance (EIA). TIA/EIA-568A stipulates the commercial cabling standards for LAN installations and is the standard most commonly used in LAN cabling environments. Some of the elements defined are: * Cable types * Cable lengths * Connectors * Cable termination * Methods of testing cable There three (3) types of unshielded twisted pair Ethernet cables and they are: Ethernet Straight- throughEthernet Crossover Rollover The figure below shows the color combinations for producing these cables Fig 4. 7 CABLE TYPE| STANDARD| APPLICATION| Etherne t straight- through| Both end T568A or both end T568B| Connecting a network host to a network device such as a switch or hub. Connect a computer to a cable/DSL modem's LAN portConnect a router's WAN port to a cable/DSL modem's LAN port. Connect a router's LAN port to a switch/hub's uplink port. (normally used for expanding network)Connect two (2) switches/hubs with one of the switch/hub using an uplink port and the other one using normal port. Ethernet crossover| One end T568A, And the other end T568B. | Connecting two network hosts. Connecting network intermediary devices such as (switch- to- router) or (router-to-router)Connect 2 switches/hubs by using normal port in both switches/hubs. | Rollover| Cisco proprietary| Connect a workstation serial port to a router console port, using an adapter. | Making Ethernet UTP cables WHAT YOU NEED Fig 4. 8 Cable- Be sure the cable(s) you are using is properly rated for CAT 5. It should state clearly on the jacket of the cable, what it is rate d at.One option that you have when selecting your cable is to use a pre-made normal ‘straight through' cable, and simply whack off one of the ends, and replace with a new â€Å"Crossed Over† end. For the purpose of this report, though, we aren't going to go that route. We are going to make the whole thing from scratch – using bulk CAT 5 cable. Connectors – Crossover cables are terminated with CAT 5 RJ-45 (RJ stands for â€Å"Registered Jack†) modular plugs. RJ-45 plugs are similar to those you'll see on the end of your telephone cable except they have eight versus four contacts on the end of the plug.Also, make sure the ends you select are rated for CAT 5 wiring. There are also different types of jacks which are used for different types of cabling (such as Solid Core wire). Make sure you buy the correct jacks for your cabling. Crimper – You will need a modular crimping tool. Fig 4. 9 Stripper – There are several specialized tools, whic h can be used to strip the jackets off of cabling. If you do not have access to one of these tools, cautious use of a razor blade or knife should work just fine – but keep in mind if you go the razor blade / knife route, extra special care must be used as to not damage the wires inside the jacket.Cutters – You need a pair of cutters that will allow you to cut a group of cables in a straight line. It is very important that all the wires are the same lengths, and without proper cutters, this can be a difficult task. Fig 4. 10 LAN Tester – You need the LAN tester to test the cable after crimping to ensure the functionality of the cable. Connect the cable to the tester and see if all lights turn green. If all lights turn green, your cable is working properly. If they do not, cut the RJ-45 connector off and re-terminate the ends of the cable with a new one.Fig 4. 11 1. Start by stripping off about 2 inches of the plastic jacket off the end of the cable. Be very caref ul at this point, as to not nick or cut into the wires, which are inside. Doing so could alter the characteristics of your cable, or even worse render it useless. Check the wires, one more time for nicks or cuts. If there are any, just whack the whole end off, and start over. Fig 4. 12 2)Spread the wires apart, but be sure to hold onto the base of the jacket with your other hand. You do not want the wires to become untwisted down inside the jacket.Category 5 cable must only have 1/2 of an inch of ‘untwisted' wire at the end; otherwise it will be ‘out of specification' Fig4. 13 Up to this point, things have been pretty easy. Things will get a little bit tricky here, but don't worry; we'll get through this together. We are at a point in this report where a decision needs to be made. You need to decide which end of the cable you are making at this point in time. If you are making your cable from scratch like I am doing while writing this report, you have 2 end jacks, which must be installed on your cable.If you are using a pre-made cable, with one of the ends whacked off, you only have one end to install – the crossed over end. Below are two diagrams, which show how you need to arrange the cables for each type of cable end. Decide at this point which end you are making and examine the associated picture below. Fig4. 14 Begin to untwist the twisted exposed wires on your cable. Use caution so that you do not untwist them down inside the jacket. Once you have all the wires untwisted begin to arrange them in the proper order based on the pictures above.This stage can be a frustrating one, especially some of the middle wires. Once you get all the wired arranged in the proper order, make sure your wire cutters are within reach then grasp them right at the point where they enter the jacket. Make sure you keep them in the proper order! Grab your cutters now. Line them up along your prepared wires about 1/2 inches above the jacket. Be sure at this point that you are both 1/2 inches above the jacket, and that your cutters are aligned straight across the wires. You want to make a clean cut here – also make sure you don't let go of that jacket / wires!Fig4. 15 5. Grab those crimpers – because not all crimpers are exactly the same your pictures may not match exactly what you see below. Be sure to keep a good grip on that jack and the cable. Insert the jack into the crimper. It should only go in one way, so you don't have a whole lot to worry about inserting it. Begin to compress those crimpers. You will more than likely hear a clicking sound. Keep squeezing. If you try to let go too early, nothing will happen. They will not release. Keep going until they stop clicking / stop moving all together.At this point, you should be able to let go of the jack, and the crimpers. The crimpers should release now leaving you with a crimped jack. If the crimpers do not release, you probably didn’t press hard enough. Fig4. 16 6)I t's time to examine what we have done. If you look at the end of the jack you should see that the copper connectors should not be pressed down into the wires. Toward the back of the jack (where the jacket meets the jack) it should be crimped securely holding the jacket / cable in the jack. If something has gone wrong, don't worry, it’s not the end of the world.Grab those cutters, and just whack the whole jack off and start back at step 1 (a frustrating one I know, but it’s better to have a cable that works, than to spend hours trouble shooting your PC trying to figure out why you can't see the other machine). If everything is cool, all you have to do now is make the other end of the cable so go back to step one, and make the other end as I have explained in this report. Fig 4. 17 Good |   |   | Fig4. 18|   | WRONG WAY – Note how the blue plastic shielding is not inside the connector where it can be locked into place. |   |   |   | Fig4. 9|   | WRON G WAY – Note how the cables do not go all the way to the end of the connector. | 4. 7 CONNECTING TWO COMPUTERS USING CROSSOVER CABLES Fig 4. 20 Plug in network card each to computer and then install network card driver for each computer. Connect the cable to both computers’ network card. Here comes the network configuration, let’s create a simple network by assigning following network info to each computer's network card: Computer A: IP Address: 10. 1. 1. 1 Subnet mask: 255. 255. 255. 0 Gateway: DNS Servers: Computer B: IP Address: 10. 1. 1. 2 Subnet mask: 255. 255. 255. 0 Gateway: DNS Servers:Since these 2 computers are directly connected, no gateway and DNS servers are needed. After assigning IP address, try to ping the other computer from command prompt, you should be able to ping each other and then sharing printers or files as you wish. 4. 8 USING PING TO TROUBLESHOOT NETWORK PROBLEM Sometimes if your network connection is down, you can use ping to troubles hoot network problem and then fix it. Ping is a program used to check whether a host is up and active in network. It’s very simple and usually used to troubleshoot network problem. Here is typical technique for pinging and it applies to wireless network as well. . First thing you need to do is to make sure there is light on network card with cable connected. Sometimes network down is due to disconnected network cable or loose cable connection. If you notice no light on your network card after connecting with network cable, make sure the network cable is working. If you see the light, then proceed to step 2. 2. Go to Start and click on Run. Type CMD, and hit Enter or click OK. Fig 4. 21 Type â€Å"ping† in the Command Window. Hit the space bar once. Type the IP or website address that you want to ping. For example, if you want to ping eBay, type â€Å"www. ebay. om† after the space. Hit â€Å"Enter. † If the website is up and actively responding, you recei ve replies back from the server that you pinged with the following information: The IP address The number of Bytes sent The time it took in milliseconds The TTL is Time to Live (This indicated the number of â€Å"hops† back from the computer pinged from that computers initial TTL value. ) Fig4. 22 4. 9HUBS AND SWITCHES As you can see, computers use network cards to send and receive data. The data is transmitted over Ethernet cables. However, you normally can’t just run an Ethernet cable between two PCs and call it a network.In this day and age of high speed Internet access being almost universally available, you tend to hear the term broadband thrown around a lot. Broadband is a type of network in which data is sent and received across the same wire. In contrast, Ethernet uses Baseband communications. Baseband uses separate wires for sending and receiving data. What this means is that if one PC is sending data across a particular wire within the Ethernet cable, then th e PC that is receiving the data needs to have the wire redirected to its receiving port. You can actually network two PCs together in this way.You can create what is known as a cross over cable. A cross over cable is simply a network cable that has the sending and receiving wires reversed at one end, so that two PCs can be linked directly together. The problem with using a cross over cable to build a network is that the network will be limited to using no more and no less than two PCs. Rather than using a cross over cable, most networks use normal Ethernet cables that do not have the sending and receiving wires reversed at one end. Of course the sending and receiving wires have to be reversed at some point in order for ommunications to succeed. This is the job of a hub or a switch. Hubs are starting to become extinct, but I want to talk about them anyway because it will make it easier to explain switches later on. There are different types of hubs, but generally speaking a hub is no thing more than a box with a bunch of RJ-45 ports. Each computer on a network would be connected to a hub via an Ethernet cable. You can see a picture of a hub, shown in Figure C. Fig 4. 23 A hub is a device that acts as a central connection point for computers on a network A hub has two different jobs.Its first job is to provide a central point of connection for all of the computers on the network. Every computer plugs into the hub (multiple hubs can be daisy chained together if necessary in order to accommodate more computers). The hub’s other job is to arrange the ports in such a way so that if a PC transmits data, the data is sent over the other computer’s receive wires. Right now you might be wondering how data gets to the correct destination if more than two PCs are connected to a hub. The secret lies in the network card. Each Ethernet card is programmed at the factory with a unique Media Access Control (MAC) address.When a computer on an Ethernet network transmi ts data across an Ethernet network containing PCs connected to a hub, the data is actually sent to every computer on the network. As each computer receives the data, it compares the destination address to its own MAC address. If the addresses match then the computer knows that it is the intended recipient, otherwise it ignores the data. As you can see, when computers are connected via a hub, every packet gets sent to every computer on the network. The problem is that any computer can send a transmission at any given time.Have you ever been on a conference call and accidentally started to talk at the same time as someone else? This is the same thing that happens on this type of network. When a PC needs to transmit data, it checks to make sure that no other computers are sending data at the moment. If the line is clear, it transmits the necessary data. If another computer tries to communicate at the same time though, then the packets of data that are traveling across the wire collide and are destroyed (this is why this type of network is sometimes referred to as a collision domain). Both PCs then have to wait for a random mount of time and attempt to retransmit the packet that was destroyed. As the number of PCs on a collision domain increases, so does the number of collisions. As the number of collisions increase, network efficiency is decreased. This is why switches have almost completely replaced hubs. A switch, such as the one shown in Figure D, performs all of the same basic tasks as a hub. The difference is that when a PC on the network needs to communicate with another PC, the switch uses a set of internal logic circuits to establish a dedicated, logical path between the two PCs.What this means is that the two PCs are free to communicate with each other, without having to worry about collisions. Fig4. 24 A switch looks a lot like a hub, but performs very differently Switches greatly improve a network’s efficiency. Yes, they eliminate collisions, bu t there is more to it than that. Because of the way that switches work, they can establish parallel communications paths. For example, just because computer A is communicating with computer B, there is no reason why computer C can’t simultaneously communicate with computer D.In a collision domain, these types of parallel communications would be impossible because they would result in collisions. 4. 10 PLANNING AND CABLING NETWORKS. When planning the installation of LAN cabling, there are four physical areas to consider: Work area Telecommunications room, also known as the distribution facility Backbone cabling, also known as vertical cabling Distribution cabling, also known as horizontal cabling Total Cable Length For UTP installations, the ANSI/TIA/EIA-568-B standard specifies that the total combined length of cable spanning the four areas listed above is limited to a maximum distance of 100 meters per